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NASA NTRS2011

Base Flow Investigation of the Apollo AS-202 Command Module

In recent years, both Europe and the US are developing hypersonic research and operational vehicles. These include (re)entry capsules (both ballistic and lifting) and lifting bodies such as ExoMars, EXPERT, ARV, CEV and IXV. The research programs are meant to enable technology and engineering capabilities to support during the next decade the development of affordable (possibly reusable) space transportation systems as well as hypersonic weapons systems for time critical targets. These programs have a broad range of goals, ranging from the qualification of thermal protection systems, the assessment of RCS performances, the development of GNC algorithms, to the full demonstration of the performance and operability of the integrated vehicles. Since the aerothermodynamic characteristics influence nearly all elements of the vehicle design, the accurate prediction of the aerothermal environment is a prerequisite for the design of efficient hypersonic systems. Significant uncertainties in the prediction of the hypersonic aerodynamic and the aerothermal loads can lead to conservative margins in the design of the vehicle including its Outer Mould Line (OML), thermal protection system, structure, and required control system robustness. The current level of aerothermal prediction uncertainties results therefore in reduced vehicle performances (e.g., sub-optimal payload to mass ratio, increased operational constraints). On the other hand, present computational capabilities enable the simulation of three dimensional flow fields with complex thermo-chemical models over complete trajectories and ease the validation of these tools by, e.g., reconstruction of detailed wind tunnel tests performed under identified and controlled conditions (flow properties and vehicle attitude in particular). These controlled conditions are typically difficult to achieve when performing in flight measurements which in turn results in large associated measurement uncertainties. Similar problems arise when attempting to rebuild measurements performed in "hot" ground facilities, where the difficulty level is increased by the addition of the free-flow characterization itself. The implementation of ever more sophisticated thermochemical models is no obvious cure to the aforementioned problems since their effect is often overwhelmed by the large measurement uncertainties incurred in both flight and ground high enthalpy facilities. Concurrent to the previous considerations, a major contributor to the overall vehicle mass of re-entry vehicles is the afterbody thermal protection system. This is due to the large acreage (equal or bigger than that of the forebody) to be protected. The present predictive capabilities for base flows are comparatively lower than those for windward flowfields and offer therefore a substantial potential for improving the design of future re-entry vehicles. To that end, it is essential to address the accuracy of high fidelity CFD tools exercised in the US and EU, which motivates a thorough investigation of the present status of hypersonic flight afterbody heating. This paper addresses the predictive capabilities of after body flow fields of re-entry vehicles investigated in the frame of the NATO/RTO - RTG-043 Task Group and is structured as follows: First, the verification of base flow topologies on the basis of available wind-tunnel results performed under controlled supersonic conditions (i.e., cold flows devoid of reactive effects) is performed. Such tests address the detailed characterization of the base flow with particular emphasis on separation/reattachment and their relation to Mach number effects. The tests have been performed on an Apollo-like re-entry capsule configuration. Second, the tools validated in the frame of the previous effort are exercised and appraised against flight-test data collected during the Apollo AS-202 re-entry.

Walpot, Louis M. G.↗

NASA NTRS2019

Transition of OSMA AM Responsibility from WSTF to MSFC

Additive manufacturing (AM) is a rapidly evolving, game changing technology requiring many disciplines (including NDE) to ensure mission safety and reliability. While AM is becoming increasingly democratized and pervasive, managing risks for fracture critical L-PBF spaceflight hardware must clearly come from MSFC. Therefore OSMA roles for NDE qualification space flight hardware are being transitioned to MSFC.

Waller, Jess↗

DOE OSTI2026

Design Status and Experimental Strategy for Initial Molten Salt Irradiation Experiments in HFIR

The development and deployment of molten salt reactor (MSR) technologies require experimental capabilities that can evaluate molten fuel salt behavior and structural material performance under representative irradiation conditions. Although modeling and separate effects testing provide important insight, there remains a critical lack of in-pile data that capture the coupled effects of neutron irradiation, temperature, salt chemistry, and time. Informed by lessons learned from historical MSR programs and recent international irradiation efforts, this report presents a structured approach to addressing existing gaps in molten salt irradiation testing using the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR). A phased irradiation strategy is presented that incrementally increases experimental complexity while managing cost, risk, and facility constraints. The framework progresses from passive, nonfueled static capsule experiments to fueled, instrumented, and ultimately circulating molten salt systems, providing a pathway for materials screening, mechanistic understanding, and qualification-relevant testing. The report defines a near-term Phase 1 passive capsule concept, associated irradiation conditions, and a conceptual post-irradiation examination strategy. Ongoing modeling, out-of-pile testing, and safety analysis activities are described to support continued capability maturation and to enable future phases of molten salt irradiation testing in support of MSR technology deployment.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗

NASA NTRS2019

13kW Advanced Electric Propulsion Flight System Development and Qualification

The next phase of robotic and human deep space exploration missions requires high performance, high power solar electric propulsion systems for large-scale science missions and cargo transportation. Aerojet Rocketdyne's Advanced Electric Propulsion System (AEPS) program is completing development and qualification of a 13kW flight EP system to support NASA exploration. The first use of the AEPS is planned for the NASA Power & Propulsion Element, which is the first element of NASA's cis-lunar Gateway. The flight AEPS system includes a magnetically shielded long-life Hall thruster, power processing unit (PPU), and xenon flow controller (XFC). The Hall thruster, originally developed and demonstrated by NASA's Glenn Research Center and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, operates at input powers up to 13.3kW while providing a specific impulse over 2600s at an input voltage of 600V. The power processor is designed to accommodate an input voltage range of 95 to 140V, consistent with operation beyond the orbit of Mars. The integrated system is continuously throttleable between 3 and 13.3kW. The program has completed testing of the Technology Development Units and is progressing into the Engineering Development Unit test phase and the final design phase to Critical Design Review (CDR). This paper will present the high power AEPS system capabilities, overall program and design status and the latest test results for the 13kW flight system development as well as the plans for the development and qualification effort of the EP string.

in-space propulsion↗

NASA NTRS2019

13kW Advanced Electric Propulsion Flight System Development and Qualification

in-space propulsion↗

DOE OSTI2024

First Phase Consensus Roadmap for Development of Condition-Based Cable Reliability Assurance

The objective of this work was to develop a first phase consensus roadmap for condition-based qualification (CBQ) of electrical cables. With CBQ, qualification of Class 1E electrical cables moves from a time-based approach to a condition-based approach, which is anticipated to be safer in terms of reliability and conservatism, and more cost effective in the long run. However, due to barriers, the CBQ approach has not yet been adopted by U.S. nuclear power plants (NPPs). Based upon a review of current work evaluating CBQ, the limitation of available condition monitoring technology seems to be the largest barrier. The importance of condition monitoring, or more specifically selecting appropriate condition indicators, during CBQ cannot be understated. However, selecting appropriate condition indicators is challenged by techniques that are destructive and only evaluate cable degradation locally. Further, arguably, no one identified condition indicator fully establishes cable condition. Thus, additional work is necessary to evaluate potential condition indicators towards CBQ. In addition to the requirements of IEC/IEEE Std. 60780-323, ideal condition indicators should include a) both destructive and non-destructive approaches, b) both local and global measurements, c) real-time (i.e., online) monitoring that trends with degradation, d) enable correlation with qualified levels of degradation, and e) be established within a repository of condition indicators with applicable materials and/or components and their acceptance criteria. Additional work is needed in development of technology and methodology prior to adoption of CBQ, especially for extending qualified life of installed components. Education and early experience by the industry and regulators will be required for this change in approach as an alternative to re-analysis. A series of workshops that bring together stakeholders to identify and address gaps will be needed. The longstanding cooperative working group of cable researchers from the U.S. Department of Energy, the Electric Power Research Institute, and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission forms a valuable starting point for development of a consensus roadmap to condition-based qualification approach as a viable options for qualification of cable systems in U.S. light water reactors.

42 ENGINEERING↗

NASA NTRS2000

Clock Technology Development in the Laser Cooling and Atomic Physics (LCAP) Program

This paper presents the Laser Cooling and Atomic Physics (LCAP) program. It focuses on clock technology development. The topics include: 1) Overview of LCAP Flight Projects; 2) Space Clock 101; 3) Physics with Clocks in microgravity; 4) Space Clock Challenges; 5) LCAP Timeline; 6) International Space Station (ISS) Science Platforms; 7) ISS Express Rack; 8) Space Qualification of Components; 9) Laser Configuration; 10) Clock Rate Comparisons: GPS Carrier Phase Frequency Transfer; and 11) ISS Model Views. This paper is presented in viewgraph form.

Seidel, Dave↗

NASA NTRS2008

In-Situ Measurement of Hall Thruster Erosion Using a Fiber Optic Regression Probe

One potential life-limiting mechanism in a Hall thruster is the erosion of the ceramic material comprising the discharge channel. This is especially true for missions that require long thrusting periods and can be problematic for lifetime qualification, especially when attempting to qualify a thruster by analysis rather than a test lasting the full duration of the mission. In addition to lifetime, several analytical and numerical models include electrode erosion as a mechanism contributing to enhanced transport properties. However, there is still a great deal of dispute over the importance of erosion to transport in Hall thrusters. The capability to perform an in-situ measurement of discharge channel erosion is useful in addressing both the lifetime and transport concerns. An in-situ measurement would allow for real-time data regarding the erosion rates at different operating points, providing a quick method for empirically anchoring any analysis geared towards lifetime qualification. Erosion rate data over a thruster's operating envelope would also be useful in the modeling of the detailed physics inside the discharge chamber. A recent fundamental sensor development effort has led to a novel regression, erosion, and ablation sensor technology (REAST). The REAST sensor allows for measurement of real-time surface erosion rates at a discrete surface location. The sensor was tested using a linear Hall thruster geometry, which served as a means of producing plasma erosion of a ceramic discharge chamber. The mass flow rate, discharge voltage, and applied magnetic field strength could be varied, allowing for erosion measurements over a broad thruster operating envelope. Results are presented demonstrating the ability of the REAST sensor to capture not only the insulator erosion rates but also changes in these rates as a function of the discharge parameters.

Polzink, Kurt A.↗

NASA NTRS2010

Develop Critical Profilometers to Meet Current and Future Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessel (COPV) Interior Inspection Needs

The objective of this project is to develop laser profilometer technology that can efficiently inspect and map the inside of composite pressure vessels for flaws such as liner buckling, pitting, or other surface imperfections. The project will also provide profilometers that can directly support inspections of flight vessels during development and qualification programs and subsequently be implemented into manufacturing inspections to screen out vessels with "out of family" liner defects. An example interior scan of a carbon overwrapped bottle is shown in comparison to an external view of the same bottle (Fig. 1). The internal scan is primarily of the cylindrical portion, but extends about 0.15 in. into the end cap area.

Saulsberry, Regor L.↗

NASA NTRS2011

Design and Test of Advanced Thermal Simulators for an Alkali Metal-Cooled Reactor Simulator

The Early Flight Fission Test Facility (EFF-TF) at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) has as one of its primary missions the development and testing of fission reactor simulators for space applications. A key component in these simulated reactors is the thermal simulator, designed to closely mimic the form and function of a nuclear fuel pin using electric heating. Continuing effort has been made to design simple, robust, inexpensive thermal simulators that closely match the steady-state and transient performance of a nuclear fuel pin. A series of these simulators have been designed, developed, fabricated and tested individually and in a number of simulated reactor systems at the EFF-TF. The purpose of the thermal simulators developed under the Fission Surface Power (FSP) task is to ensure that non-nuclear testing can be performed at sufficiently high fidelity to allow a cost-effective qualification and acceptance strategy to be used. Prototype thermal simulator design is founded on the baseline Fission Surface Power reactor design. Recent efforts have been focused on the design, fabrication and test of a prototype thermal simulator appropriate for use in the Technology Demonstration Unit (TDU). While designing the thermal simulators described in this paper, effort were made to improve the axial power profile matching of the thermal simulators. Simultaneously, a search was conducted for graphite materials with higher resistivities than had been employed in the past. The combination of these two efforts resulted in the creation of thermal simulators with power capacities of 2300-3300 W per unit. Six of these elements were installed in a simulated core and tested in the alkali metal-cooled Fission Surface Power Primary Test Circuit (FSP-PTC) at a variety of liquid metal flow rates and temperatures. This paper documents the design of the thermal simulators, test program, and test results.

Garber, Anne E.↗

DOE OSTI2025

Laser Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacture Nb1Zr Development

Next generation fission and fusion nuclear reactors require materials that can withstand operating temperatures greater than 500 °C, neutron irradiation doses of up to 200 displacements per atom (dpa), and potentially corrosive coolants such as the alkali liquid metals sodium, lithium, and NaK (Na33K eutectic alloy). Refractory alloys, such as Nb1Zr (Nb-1wt%Zr) and Molybdenum alloy TZM (Mo-0.5wt%Ti-0.08wt%Zr) have been traditionally considered viable candidates for advanced fission and fusion reactor concepts. However, it is relatively difficult to generate complex geometries of interest from these alloys using traditional manufacturing methods. In addition, there needs to be a concentrated effort to address refractory metal challenges at elevated temperature operation. In order to generate complex geometries of interest, modern manufacturing techniques are considered to increase the technological readiness level (TRL), cost-effectiveness, and schedule savings. This work focused on the continued development of laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) additive manufacturing (AM) to improve both design flexibility, evaluate microstructure and properties, and ultimately accelerate the TRL and qualification of these processes and alloys for components to potentially be put into service. Niobium alloy Nb1Zr was identified through a down-selection process outlined in previous reports as a candidate to develop in L-PBF AM. Historically, Nb1Zr had been explored for high temperature fast spectrum fission reactors for both terrestrial and space applications. Molybdenum alloy TZM has also been considered for these reactor concepts due to exceptional high-temperature strength, creep resistance, and stability under irradiation. L-PBF AM of TZM has previously been investigated at LANL under the Microreactor program, NASA, ORNL, and in academia. However, due to the crack prone nature of TZM, L-PBF AM of TZM resulted in significant microcracking and additional development is required to pursue viable maturation. Other AM methods have been found to be more successful in printing TZM, and those alternatives approaches are discussed in this effort. The efforts detailed in this report focused on continued development of Nb1Zr through L-PBF and development of TZM via L-PBF and electron powder bed fusion (E-PBF). The objective of this work was to further the development of these AM techniques for the chosen refractory alloys, elucidating and addressing associated challenges through characterization of several demonstration builds. At LANL, Nb1Zr builds were completed using an EOS M290 and M400 machines, and a refractory alloy-dedicated L-PBF system, the Xact Metal XM200G, was installed. The XM200G primary purpose was to do the Nb1Zr parameter development process; however, due to difficulties associated with the machine installation and qualification process, it was decided to pivot development to the larger M400 and M290 machines. Although the supply of Nb1Zr powder was limited, it was sufficient to generate sub-scale metallographic specimens for the purpose of parameter development. This was first accomplished on the EOS M400 then the M290 due to machine schedule availability. Further development of TZM has been initiated at the University of Texas El Paso (UTEP) under contract with LANL to use both a heated build envelope L-PBF machine and E-PBF machine that have been found in the literature to mitigate microcracking. UTEP was provided with TZM powder and build plates to support parallel TZM parameter development across both machines. As part of the contract, UTEP will also be conducting microstructural characterization once optimized process parameters have been identified. The optimized process parameters for each machine will be used to generate a series of metallographic, mechanical, and surface finish specimens for subsequent characterization and testing. In the next section, we provide a detailed discussion of the methodology used for investigating the feasibility of leveraging these alloys for use in advanced reactor applications.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

NASA NTRS1985

Fiber optic data systems

An overview is given of a continuing data system architecture development effort. Accomplishments and states of Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology, NASA efforts are discussed, and possible future directions are briefly commented upon. Some performance data is presented on the access protocol utilized in the Bus Interface Unit (BIU) design effort, and it is compared with other access protocols. The status of the qualification effort is presented showing the successful qualification testing of cables, connectors, light emitting diodes and PIN diodes. Information is given in the form of charts and diagrams.

Hartenstein, R.↗

DOE OSTI2025

Interpretation of Ion Irradiation and Neutron Irradiation Damage in Additively Manufactured 316 Stainless Steel using Multiscale Modeling

The accelerated adoption of nuclear energy necessitates advanced manufacturing technologies, such as additive manufacturing, to meet heightened supply chain requirements and support innovative reactor technologies. Due to the unique microstructural characteristics of additively manufactured materials under distinct solidification conditions, comprehensive evaluation of their performance in reactor environments is essential. The Advanced Materials and Manufacturing Technologies program under the Department of Energy's Office of Nuclear Energy focuses on understanding the irradiation performance and damage evolution of laser powder bed fusion 316 stainless steel, with an emphasis on integrating ion and neutron irradiation data to accelerate the development and qualification of materials for advanced nuclear reactor applications. While ion irradiation is a cost- and time-effective method, modeling and simulation are required to interpret the data for the broader range of irradiation conditions encountered in advanced reactors. In fiscal year 2025, integrated multiscale modeling and simulations were conducted to assess irradiation damage in additively manufactured 316 stainless steel. Key outcomes include predictions of chromium enrichment at grain boundaries, nickel enrichment at dislocation cell walls and void surfaces, and heterogeneous void evolution under ion and neutron irradiation conditions. Cluster dynamics simulations revealed the coarsening of voids at high irradiation temperatures and the suppression of void growth by high network dislocation density, while also demonstrating significant growth and coarsening of voids and self-interstitial atom loops at low dose rates. Machine learning-accelerated atomistic simulations highlighted the impact of the local environment and chromium concentration on vacancy diffusivity, providing key insights on the influence of composition on void swelling and radiation-induced segregation. Additionally, molecular dynamics simulations demonstrated the presence of defect production bias and a significant effect of carbon content on defect cluster behavior. These combined efforts aim to predict the performance of additively manufactured materials under various reactor conditions, supporting their qualification for nuclear reactor applications by interpreting ion irradiation data. This report underscores the potential of integrated multiscale modeling to analyze ion irradiation data in the effort to accelerate the qualification of additively manufactured materials for nuclear reactor components.

316 stainless steel↗

DOE OSTI2026

Powder metallurgy hot isostatic pressing - workshop report

The findings of the powder metallurgy (PM) hot isostatic pressing (HIP) workshop confirmed that the accelerated adoption of this technology requires the following action items: 1. By 2035, the HIP infrastructure must be scaled to sizes larger than 4 .0 meters for manufacturing components relevant to energy and defense industries at large. 2. The community must develop cost-effective and agile standards, qualifications, and certification pathways for these HIP parts. 3. At the same time, domestic powder production should be expanded to a wide range of metallic alloys, including Cr-Mo steels, stainless steels, and titanium- and nickel-based superalloys, as well as to emerging alloy classes in the refractory space. 4. The above initiatives can be enhanced by implementing digital modeling and controls, including AI-driven simulations, in situ monitoring, and digital twins.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2024

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Ni-based Alloys Fabricated by Laser Powder Bed Fusion

The Advanced Materials and Manufacturing Technologies (AMMT) program is aiming at the accelerated incorporation of new materials and manufacturing technologies into nuclear-related systems. Complex Ni-based components fabricated by laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) could enable operating temperatures at T > 700°C in aggressive environments such as molten salts or liquid metals. However, available mechanical properties data relevant to material qualification remains limited, in particular for Ni-based alloys routinely fabricated by LPBF such as IN718 (Ni- 19Cr-18Fe-5Nb-3Mo) and Haynes 282 (Ni-20Cr-10Co-8.5Mo-2.1Ti-1.5Al). Creep testing was conducted on LPBF 718 at 600°C and 650°C and on LPBF 282 at 750°C. finding that the creep strength of the two alloys was close to that of wrought counterparts. with lower ductility at rupture. Heat treatments were tailored to the LPBF-specific microstructure to achieve grain recrystallization and form strengthening γ' precipitates for LPBF 282 and γ' and γ" precipitates for LPBF 718. In-situ data generated during printing and ex-situ X-ray computed tomography (XCT) scans were used to correlate the creep properties of LPBF 282 to the material flaw distribution. In- situ data revealed that spatter particles are the potential causes for flaws formation in LPBF 282. with significant variation between rods based on their location on the build plate. XCT scans revealed the formation of a larger number of creep flaws after testing in the specimens with a higher initial flaw density. which led to a lower ductility for the specimen.

Dryepondt, Sebastien↗

NASA NTRS1994

(abstract) A Solar Electric Propulsion Mission to the Moon and Beyond!

The technological development of solar electric propulsion has advanced significantly over the last few years. Mission planners are now seriously studying which missions would benefit most from solar electric propulsion (SEP) and NASA's Solar System Exploration Division is contributing funding to ground and space qualification tests. In response to the impending release of NASA's Announcement of Opportunity for Discovery class planetary missions, we have undertaken a pre-Phase A study of a SEP mission to the Moon. This mission will not only return a wealth of new scientific data but will open up a whole new era of planetary exploration.

solar electric propulsion SEP Moon↗

NASA NTRS2007

Electric Propulsion Requirements and Mission Analysis Under NASA's In-Space Propulsion Technology Project

The In-Space Propulsion Technology Project (ISPT) is currently NASA's sole investment in electric propulsion technologies. This project is managed at NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC) for the NASA Headquarters Science Mission Directorate (SMD). The objective of the electric propulsion project area is to develop near-term and midterm electric propulsion technologies to enhance or enable future NASA science missions while minimizing risk and cost to the end user. Systems analysis activities sponsored by ISPT seek to identify future mission applications in order to quantify mission requirements, as well as develop analytical capability in order to facilitate greater understanding and application of electric propulsion and other propulsion technologies in the ISPT portfolio. These analyses guide technology investments by informing decisions and defining metrics for technology development to meet identified mission requirements. This paper discusses the missions currently being studied for electric propulsion by the ISPT project, and presents the results of recent electric propulsion (EP) mission trades. Recent ISPT systems analysis activities include: an initiative to standardize life qualification methods for various electric propulsion systems in order to retire perceived risk to proposed EP missions; mission analysis to identify EP requirements from Discovery, New Frontiers, and Flagship classes of missions; and an evaluation of system requirements for radioisotope-powered electric propulsion. Progress and early results of these activities is discussed where available.

Dudzinski, Leonard a.↗

NASA NTRS2000

X-33 Leading the Way to VentureStar(Trademark) in this Decade

The X-33, reusable space plane technology demonstrator is on course to begin the flights of the X-33 by the end of 2002 that will serve as a basis for industry and government decisions that could lead to VentureStar(Trademark). Lockheed Martin has placed the VentureStar(Trademark) LLC in it's Space Company and is now competing in an industry wide effort that will permit NASA to select a Second Generation RLV source by 2005. This move provides the focus for firm business planning needed to enable the decision by the time X-33 flies in mid 2002 and possibly with upgraded technologies a year or so later. Since the IAF 50th Congress in Amsterdam, most of the major hardware elements of X-33 have been through their assembly and test. The flight liquid oxygen tank was the first major element to complete final assembly. Aerospike Engine qualification testing has progressed successfully through its test objectives and the two flight engines are in preparation to be delivered to the Assembly Facility in Palmdale. All Thermal Protection System (TPS) metallic panels have completed qualification testing and have been delivered to Palmdale and all remaining TPS elements have been assembled and are ready for delivery. Flight Software and Avionics have been delivered and are in integration testing. In November 1999, the first graphite composite liquid hydrogen tank experienced a debond between the tank inner skin and the honeycomb core in testing. This tank had completed its third successful cryogenic and loads testing at MSFC. Replacement liquid hydrogen tanks have completed design and are in fabrication. The resulting delay from this change of design for the liquid hydrogen tank will be approximately two years.

Austin, Robert E.↗