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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 343 records · Page 19
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Monofluorinated acetal electrolyte for high-performance lithium metal batteries

High degree of fluorination for ether electrolytes has resulted in improved cycling stability of lithium metal batteries due to stable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation and good oxidative stability. However, the sluggish ion transport and environmental concerns of high fluorination degree drive the need to develop less fluorinated structures. Here, we depart from the traditional ether backbone and introduce bis(2-fluoroethoxy)methane (F2DEM), featuring monofluorination of the acetal backbone. High coulombic efficiency and stable long-term cycling in Li||Cu half cells can be achieved with F2DEM even under fast Li metal plating conditions. The performance of F2DEM is further compared with diethoxymethane (DEM) and 2-[2-(2,2-difluoroethoxy)ethoxy]-1,1,1-trifluoroethane (F5DEE). A significantly lower overpotential is observed with F2DEM, which improves energy efficiency and enables its application in high-rate conditions. Comparative studies of F2DEM with DEM and F5DEE in anode-free lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) LFP pouch cells and high-loading LFP coin cells further show improved capacity retention of F2DEM electrolyte, demonstrating its practical applicability. More importantly, we also extensively investigate the underlying mechanism for the superior performance of F2DEM through various techniques, including X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, cryogenic electron microscopy, focused ion beam, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and titration gas chromatography. Overall, F2DEM facilitates improved Li deposition morphology with reduced amount of dead Li. This enables F2DEM to show superior performance, especially under higher charging and slower discharging rate conditions.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Boosting electrochemical reaction and suppressing phase transition with a high-entropy O3-type layered oxide for sodium-ion batteries

Complex phase transitions induced by interlayer slides in layered cathode materials lead to poor cycling stability and rate capability for sodium-ion batteries. Herein, we design and prepare a new six-component high-entropy oxide (HEO) layered cathode O3–Na(Fe 0.2 Co 0.2 Ni 0.2 Ti 0.2 Sn 0.1 Li 0.1 )O 2 to enable highly reversible electrochemical reaction and phase-transition behavior. The HEO cathode exhibits good cycling performance (capacity retention of ~81% after 100 cycles at 0.5C) and outstanding rate capability (capacity of ~81 mA h g –1 at 2.0C) due to the higher sodium diffusion coefficient (above 5.75 × 10 –11 cm 2 s –1 ) than most reported O3-type cathodes. Moreover, the high-entropy cathode has superior compatibility with the hard carbon anode and delivers a specific capacity of 90.4 mA h g –1 (energy density of ~267.5 W h kg –1 ). Ex situ X-ray diffraction proves that the high-entropy designing effectively suppresses the intermediate phase change to achieve reversible O3–P3 phase evolution, and in turn stabilizes the layered structure. X-ray absorption spectroscopy and Mössbauer spectrum of 57 Fe suggest that Ni 2+ /Ni 3.5+ , Co 3+ /Co 3.5+ , and part of Fe 3+ /Fe 3.5+ redox reaction contribute the charge compensation. Finally, the enhanced performance can be attributed to the disordered distribution of multi-component transition metals in HEO suppressing the ordering of electric charges and sodium vacancies, thereby inhibiting the interlayer slide and phase transition.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

Alginate–Sodium Sulfate Decahydrate Phase Change Composite with Extended Stability

Here, this study reports on the use of sodium alginate to effectively stabilize sodium sulfate decahydrate (Na 2 SO 4 ∙10H 2 O, SSD) based phase change material (PCM) for application as a thermal energy storage material. Alginate/SSD composite PCMs were prepared by blending SSD with different concentrations of alginate polymer. The resulting composite PCMs demonstrate high phase change enthalpy ~160 J/g and extended cycling stability compared to existing PCM composites. The analysis carried out by optical microscopy, X-ray scattering, and periodic density functional theory (DFT) calculations demonstrated that the stabilization effect was caused by the interplay between ionic and hydrogen bond interactions between the alginate and SSD. Additionally, the variation in mechanical properties of PCM composites with polymer concentrations made it possible to formulate a composite that maintains stable performance after 3D printing. The advanced properties make this composite a promising candidate for application as a thermal energy storage material.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Surface-Treated Composite Polymer as a Stable Artificial Solid Electrolyte Interphase Layer for Lithium Metal Anodes

Lithium (Li) metal batteries (LMBs) are one of the most promising high energy density batteries to meet the demands of electric transportation. However, the practical applications of LMBs are hindered by short cycle life and safety concern, mainly associated with side reactions between Li metal anode and liquid electrolyte and the growth of Li dendrites during cycling. In this study, we develop a stable artificial solid electrolyte interphase (aSEI), which consists of a surface-treated (S T ) PEO–Li 6.4 Ga 0.2 La 3 Zr 2 O 12 composite polymer coating layer (CPL) on Li metal anode. The developed aSEI is stable against selected electrolyte and enables a uniform electrodeposition of Li. Therefore, S T CPL@Li||LiNi 0.8 Mn 0.1 Co 0.1 O 2 (NMC811) cells exhibit improved cycling stability compared with bare Li||NMC811 cells at moderate to high current densities. Notably, using a 50 µm thick Li and a practical NMC811 cathode (~4.8 mAh cm -2 ), a capacity retention of 85% is obtained for S T CPL@Li||NMC811 cells at a current density of 2.4 mAcm -2 after 300 cycles compared with 24% for bare Li||NMC811 cells. Furthermore, S T CPL@Li||NMC811 cells demonstrate higher capacities at charge current densities of 2.4, 4.8 and 7.2 mAcm -2 compared with bare Li||NMC811 cells. Further, these findings suggest that S T CPL is promising for high current density practical LMBs.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
NASA NTRS1980

High-temperature molten salt thermal energy storage systems

The results of comparative screening studies of candidate molten carbonate salts as phase change materials (PCM) for advanced solar thermal energy storage applications at 540 to 870 C (1004 to 1600 F) and steam Rankine electric generation at 400 to 540 C (752 to 1004 F) are presented. Alkali carbonates are attractive as latent heat storage materials because of their relatively high storage capacity and thermal conductivity, low corrosivity, moderate cost, and safe and simple handling requirements. Salts were tested in 0.1 kWhr lab scale modules and evaluated on the basis of discharge heat flux, solidification temperature range, thermal cycling stability, and compatibility with containment materials. The feasibility of using a distributed network of high conductivity material to increase the heat flux through the layer of solidified salt was evaluated. The thermal performance of an 8 kWhr thermal energy storage (TES) module containing LiKCO3 remained very stable throughout 5650 hours and 130 charge/discharge cycles at 480 to 535 C (896 to 995 F). A TES utilization concept of an electrical generation peaking subsystem composed of a multistage condensing steam turbine and a TES subsystem with a separate power conversion loop was defined. Conceptual designs for a 100 MW sub e TES peaking system providing steam at 316 C, 427 C, and 454 C (600 F, 800 F, and 850 F) at 3.79 million Pa (550 psia) were developed and evaluated. Areas requiring further investigation have also been identified.

Petri, R. J.↗
DOE OSTI2021

Thermally Aged Li–Mn–O Cathode with Stabilized Hybrid Cation and Anion Redox

Though low-cost and environmentally friendly, Li–Mn–O cathodes suffer from low energy density. Although synthesized Li 4 Mn 5 O 12 -like overlithiated spinel cathode with reversible hybrid anion- and cation-redox (HACR) activities has a high initial capacity, it degrades rapidly due to oxygen loss and side-reaction-induced electrolyte decomposition. In this study, we develop a two-step heat treatment to promote local decomposition as Li 4 Mn 5 O 12 → 2LiMn 2 O 4 + Li 2 MnO 3 + 1/2 O 2 ↑, which releases near-surface reactive oxygen that is harmful to cycling stability. The produced nanocomposite delivers a high discharge capacity of 225 mAh/g and energy density of over 700 Wh/kg at active-material level at a current density of 100 mA/g between 1.8 to 4.7 V. Benefiting from suppressed oxygen loss and side reactions, 80% capacity retention is achieved after 214 cycles in half cells. With industrially acceptable electrolyte amount (6 g/Ah), full cells paired with Li 4 Ti 5 O 12 anode have a good retention over 100 cycles.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Low Melting Temperature Gallium–Indium Liquid Metal Anode for Solid-State Li-Ion Batteries

Solid-state Li-ion batteries are attracting attention for their enhanced safety features, higher energy density, and broader operational temperature range compared to systems based on liquid electrolytes. However, current solid-state Li-ion batteries face performance challenges, such as suboptimal cycling and poor rate capabilities, often due to inadequate interfacial contact between the solid electrolyte and electrodes. To address this issue, we incorporated a gallium–indium (Ga–In) liquid metal as the anode in a solid-state Li-ion battery setup, employing Li 6 PS 5 Cl as the solid electrolyte. Operating at room temperature, this configuration achieved an initial capacity of 389 mAh g –1 and maintained 88% of this capacity after 30 cycles at a 0.05 C rate. It also demonstrated a capacity retention of 66% after 500 cycles at a 0.5 C rate. In comparison to solid anode materials, such as tin, the Ga–In liquid metal exhibited superior cycling stability and rate capacity, which is due to the self-healing and fluid properties of the alloy that ensure stable interfacial contact with solid electrolytes. In situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) and ex situ scanning electron microscope (SEM) analyses revealed that indium does not directly participate in the lithiation/delithiation process. Instead, it helps maintain the alloy’s low melting point, facilitating its return to a liquid state after delithiation. In a comparative analysis of stack pressure during cycling in cells utilizing Ga–In liquid metal and tin, the Ga–In liquid metal cell demonstrated an ability to buffer pressure increases associated with deformation. In conclusion, these findings suggest a promising approach for enhancing solid-state batteries by integrating liquid metal anodes, which improve interfacial contact and stability.

Alloys↗
DOE OSTI2020

Spontaneous and reversible hollowing of alloy anode nanocrystals for stable battery cycling

High-capacity alloy anode materials for Li-ion batteries have long been held back by limited cyclability caused by the large volume changes during lithium insertion and removal. Hollow and yolk-shell nanostructures have been used to increase the cycling stability by providing an inner void space to accommodate volume changes and a mechanically and dimensionally stable outer surface. These materials, however, require complex synthesis procedures. Here, using in situ transmission electron microscopy, we show that sufficiently small antimony nanocrystals spontaneously form uniform voids on the removal of lithium, which are then reversibly filled and vacated during cycling. This behaviour is found to arise from a resilient native oxide layer that allows for an initial expansion during lithiation but mechanically prevents shrinkage as antimony forms voids during delithiation. In this work, we developed a chemomechanical model that explains these observations, and we demonstrate that this behaviour is size dependent. Thus, antimony naturally evolves to form optimal nanostructures for alloy anodes, as we show through electrochemical experiments in a half-cell configuration in which 15-nm antimony nanocrystals have a consistently higher Coulombic efficiency than larger nanoparticles.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Mesh-like structure integrated core-shell-shell nanocomposites for enhanced stability and performance in carbon capture

Carbon capture is essential for mitigating climate change, yet most sorbents struggle to combine high capacity with chemical stability. Here we report core-shell-shell (CSS) nanocomposites that integrate adsorption efficiency with exceptional robustness. The design couples a metal-organic framework (MOF) core, which enriches local CO 2 concentration, with a polyamine shell that is reorganized into a porous, ordered network through entanglement with an outer covalent organic framework (COF) shell. This hierarchical architecture enables dual amine functionalization via sequential “click” and Schiff-base reactions, achieving a CO 2 uptake of 3.4 mmol g −1 at 1 bar. The COF outer layer also acts as a protective barrier, suppressing humidity interference and doubling cycling stability under simulated flue gas. Remarkably, the nanocomposites maintain structural integrity after one week in strongly acidic (3 M HNO 3 ) or basic (NaOH, pH=14) environments, underscoring their chemical resilience. By uniting high capacity, cycling durability, and environmental tolerance, this CSS strategy offers a versatile platform for next-generation carbon capture materials.

Yang, Sizhuo [Lawrence Berkeley National Laborator↗
DOE OSTI2022

Carbon Dioxide Capture at Nucleophilic Hydroxide Sites in Oxidation‐Resistant Cyclodextrin‐Based Metal–Organic Frameworks**

Abstract Carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) from industrial point sources and direct air capture are necessary to combat global climate change. A particular challenge faced by amine‐based sorbents—the current leading technology—is poor stability towards O 2 . Here, we demonstrate that CO 2 chemisorption in γ‐cylodextrin‐based metal–organic frameworks (CD‐MOFs) occurs via HCO 3 − formation at nucleophilic OH − sites within the framework pores, rather than via previously proposed pathways. The new framework KHCO 3 CD‐MOF possesses rapid and high‐capacity CO 2 uptake, good thermal, oxidative, and cycling stabilities, and selective CO 2 capture under mixed gas conditions. Because of its low cost and performance under realistic conditions, KHCO 3 CD‐MOF is a promising new platform for CCS. More broadly, our work demonstrates that the encapsulation of reactive OH − sites within a porous framework represents a potentially general strategy for the design of oxidation‐resistant adsorbents for CO 2 capture.

Zick, Mary E.↗
DOE OSTI2021

Experimental Protocols for Studying Organic Non-aqueous Redox Flow Batteries

We report that Redox flow batteries (RFBs) are promising devices for grid-scale energy storage due to the decoupling of power and energy, which can be independently scaled by the electrode area and storage tank size, respectively. To date, only aqueous RFBs, such as the vanadium RFB, have been implemented commercially. Nevertheless, the limited energy densities and high-cost materials may preclude their wider market penetration. Organic non-aqueous redox-flow batteries (O-NRFBs), which utilize redox-active organic molecules (ROMs), have been offered as an attractive alternative. Many possible advantages include the use of earth-abundant elements (C, H, N, O, S, F), wherein the ROMs can be prepared from low-cost and sustainable materials. Additionally, a large variety of electroactive moieties are accessible as building blocks, providing a synthetic platform to tune the properties of ROMs through rational design. As a consequence, the development of novel ROMs has attracted researchers with diverse backgrounds, prompting remarkable innovations in the past decade. However, consistency in experimental protocols (e.g., electrochemical methods, cycling stability, experimental conditions) has not coincided with this uptick in research, leading to sometimes ambiguous and incomparable results. This is further convoluted by the complexity innate to battery development, such as cell design, detection, and characterization of reactions and active components. The O-NRFB application imposes stringent requirements on the physical or/and chemical processes involved in electrochemical cycling. Yet such considerations are often overlooked. Further, while quantum mechanical calculations provide a convenient tool for evaluating and selecting ROM candidates, this simulation is not always performed. Thus, in this Energy Focus, we detail a means to standardize experimental protocols for studies of O-NRFBs and suggest practices to facilitate fundamental understanding and development of ROMs.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2020

High-Capacity P2-Type Na x Li 0.25 Mn 0.75 O 2 Cathode Enabled by Anionic Oxygen Redox

Sodium-ion battery technology has attracted significant attention due to its substantial cost advantage and similar operating mechanism to Li-ion batteries. P2-type sodium manganese oxide cathode is one of the most promising candidates, demonstrating both high capacity and good cycling stability. Here, we explore the lattice oxygen activity in layered sodium transition metal oxides. We synthesize a series of sodium lithium manganese oxides, NaxLi 0.25 Mn 0.75 O2 (x = 0.75 – 0.833), to optimize Na content. We further investigate the charge compensation mechanism for the best performing Na 0.75 Li 0.25 Mn 0.75 O 2 over an extensive electrochemical cycling window. The large charge and discharge capacity is enabled by reversible lattice oxygen redox in the high voltage region (≥2.5 V), along with Mn redox at the voltages below 2.5 V. Additionally, we reveal a small amount of oxygen gas evolution, 0.04% of the total oxygen in Na 0.25 Li 0.25 Mn 0.75 O 2 . This initial study will trigger an interest in the lattice oxygen activity in layered sodium metal oxide cathode, therefore, leading to better understanding of its correlation with crystal structure and electrochemical performance.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Elevating the Practical Application of Sodium-Ion Batteries through Advanced Characterization Studies on Cathodes

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have emerged as promising alternatives to their lithium-ion counterparts due to the abundance of sodium resources and their potential for cost-effective energy storage solutions. The chemistry for SIBs has been investigated since the 1980s, but it went through a slow research and development process. Recently, there has been an acceleration in technology maturation due to a supply chain crisis originating from unequal resource distribution and sustainability and safety concerns regarding lithium-ion batteries. However, the practical application of SIBs has been hindered primarily by challenges related to cathode materials, specifically, surface and structural stabilities in different conditions. Through the integration of advanced techniques such as in situ spectroscopy, operando diffraction, and high-resolution microscopy, a comprehensive understanding of the cathode’s dynamic behavior and degradation mechanisms can be achieved. The identified structural modifications, phase transitions, and degradation pathways offer critical insights into the design of robust cathode materials with prolonged cycling stability, fast charging capability, high energy density, great low-temperature performance, and safety. This review underscores the pivotal role of cutting-edge characterization techniques in guiding the development of high-performance sodium-ion batteries, thereby fostering the realization of sustainable and efficient energy storage solutions for diverse technological applications.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Investigating Particle Size‐Dependent Redox Kinetics and Charge Distribution in Disordered Rocksalt Cathodes

Abstract Understanding how various redox activities evolve and distribute in disordered rocksalt oxides (DRX) can advance insights into manipulating materials properties for achieving stable, high‐energy batteries. Herein, the authors present how the reaction kinetics and spatial distribution of redox activities are governed by the particle size of DRX materials. The size‐dependent electrochemical performance is attributed to the distinct cationic and anionic reaction kinetics at different sizes, which can be tailored to achieve optimal capacity and stability. Overall, the local charged domains in DRX particles display random heterogeneity caused by the isotropic delithiation pathways. Owing to the kinetic limitation, the micron‐sized particles exhibit a holistic “core‐shell” charge distribution, whereas sub‐micron particles show more uniform redox reactions throughout the particles and ensembles. Sub‐micron DRX particles exhibit increasing anionic redox activities yet inferior cycling stability. In summary, engineering particle size can effectively modulate how cationic and anionic redox activities evolve and distribute in DRX materials.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Magnesium Todorokite: Influence of Morphology on Electrochemistry in Lithium, Sodium and Magnesium Based Batteries

Samples of Mg-todorokite with mixed nanosheet & nanowire (referred to as nanosheets for the sake of simplicity) and pure nanowire morphology were prepared to probe the morphological impact on battery relevant electrochemistry. The samples had similar physicochemical properties where the Mg-todorokite nanosheets had a composition of Mg 0.20 MnO 2 with a crystallite size of 9 nm and water content of 0.29 moles of H 2 O per formula unit, while the nanowires had a composition of Mg 0.19 MnO 2 with a crystallite size of 14 nm and water content of 0.28. The electrochemistry of the Mg-todorokite materials was evaluated using cyclic voltammetry, galvanostatic cycling, and rate capability testing. The Mg-todorokite nanosheets showed higher discharge capacity than the nanowires in lithium, sodium and magnesium-based electrolytes. Notably, the nanowire materials exhibited excellent cycling stability compared to the nanosheets in lithium and sodium-based batteries. Finally, x-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) of lithiated samples suggests that Mn in the nanosheet containing material was more highly reduced to Mn 3+ after the 1st full discharge explaining the higher initial capacities observed. However, a MnO-like structural distortion was observed after extended cycling in the nanosheet material consistent with its poorer capacity retention.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

New Thermochemical Salt Hydrate System for Energy Storage in Buildings

This paper introduces an innovative design for an “inorganic salt-expanded graphite” composite thermochemical system. The storage unit is made of a perforated, compressed, expanded graphite block impregnated with molten CaCl 2 ∙6H 2 O; the humid air passes through the holes that allow the moisture to diffuse and react with the salt. The prepared block underwent 90 hydration-dehydration cycles. Although most of the performed cycles were carried out with salt overhydration and deliquescence, the treated samples have remained mechanically and thermally stable with no drop in energy density. The volumetric energy density of the composite ranged from 135.5 to 277.6 kWh/m 3 , depending on airflow rate and absolute humidity. To ensure composite material cycling stability, the energy density of the block was measured during hydration at similar conditions of absolute humidity, inlet temperature, and airflow rate (0.01 kg water /kg air , 20 °C, 400 l/min). The average energy density at these conditions was sustained at 219 kWh/m 3 . The block integrity was monitored by visual inspection after removing it from the reactor chamber every few cycles. Both the composite material and its manufacturing process are simple and easy to scale up for future commercialization.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

High-Performance Low-Cobalt Cathode Materials for Li-ion Batteries

The layer-structured Li[Ni x Co y Mn 1-x-y ]O 2 (NCM) cathode materials have been the best choice for increasing electric vehicle driving distance per charge. The high Ni layered oxide represents successfully commercialized NCM cathodes (such as NCM622 and NCA) in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) for EV applications due to their high energy density and acceptable cycling stability. However, the price of cobalt, the key element within LIBs for stability, has nearly tripled over the past few years due to increased demand from the cell phone industry. As mentioned in the DOE Funding Opportunity Announcement, the current materials shortage will also cause speculation for a future global shortage. Therefore, to meet the requirement and sustainability of the next-generation long-range and low-cost EVs, developing cathode materials with low-Co content to achieve higher energy density and lower cost is both essential and urgent. The overarching objective of this work is to develop stabilized NCM cathode materials with low Co content (namely LiNi x Co y Mn 1-x-y O 2 , y ≤ 0.04) to meet DOE’s goal of reducing Co loading below 50 mg Wh -1 while maintaining energy density greater than 600 Wh kg -1 based on cathode material. Via various dopings and coatings scalable methods, we explored and enhanced the cycling performance of low-cobalt cathodes. The final obtained NCM cathodes paired with graphite anode aim to deliver batteries with a high initial specific energy density of over 240 Wh kg -1 and a low capacity fading rate of less than 20% in 1000 cycles under a C/3 discharge rate. To accomplish this goal, a multidisciplinary team with several co-investigators has been formed from three organizations: The Pennsylvania State University (PSU), Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL). The PI and co-investigators are Dr. Donghai Wang (PI) from PSU with expertise in the synthesis of nanostructured materials and manipulation of interfacial properties of electrochemically active materials, Dr. Jagjit Nanda, with substantial knowledge of and expertise in state-of-the-art cathodes from ORNL, Dr. Chao-Yang Wang with significant experience in advanced cell design and fabrication and cell diagnostics from PSU, and Dr. Chongmin Wang with world-wide known expertise of advance atomic scale characterization of electrode materials from PNNL. Furthermore, this project will leverage and synergistically work with the current DOE-funded programs on battery materials at PSU and ORNL and electrode materials characterization at PNNL. During this funded period, we have accomplished milestones stated as follows: • Scale up production of LiFePO 4 (LFP) coated NCM811 with a production of 300g/batch. Fifteen (≥2 Ah) pouch cells with LFP-coated NCM811 cathode are delivered. Self-evaluated pouch cells in PSU show superior over 80% capacity retention performance even after 1500 cycles at C/3 rate. • Various cations (Al, Ti, Zr, and Mo) substitute cobalt in low-cobalt partially and Co-free cathodes. Their effects on crystal structure and electrochemical behavior are explored. • Phosphate compounds as coating materials represent promising surface protection precursors for low-cobalt cathode materials. Therefore, several metal phosphates were selected for improving the NMC cycling performance and are regarded as effective approaches for a scalable and practical surface protection method. • Production of NCM92, where Nickel content is 92% among transition metals, is scaled up from synthesis to coating and heat treatment procedures. Fifteen 2.7Ah pouch cells with Ti-doped NCM92 cathodes and industrial graphite anode are delivered to Idaho National Lab for testing.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗