Fueling Station Component Validation
DOE H2@Scale Working Group presentation on California hydrogen station data project.
39 EE - Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies (EE-3F↗
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Fabrication of yttrium hydride for high-temperature moderator application
We report given the superior thermal stability and highly attainable hydrogen density, yttrium hydride is an excellent high-temperature moderator material in advanced thermal neutron spectrum reactors that require small core volumes. Large-scale, crack-free, bulk yttrium hydride is in high demand; however, fabrication of yttrium hydride is challenging and has not been demonstrated for nearly half century. The associated challenges are discussed herein. In response to these challenges, a hydriding system was designed and constructed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory and was used to successfully fabricate crack-free yttrium hydride in complex geometries at large scales. This was accomplished by precisely controlling the hydrogen’s partial pressure and the retort temperature, which was informed by the well-established thermodynamic properties of the binary H–Y system. Hydrogen content in as-fabricated hydride was determined by weight change, an approach which was considered reliable based on the use of ultra–high-purity yttrium, the absence of oxide phases up to levels detectable using x-ray diffraction (XRD), and the significant weight gain. Hydrogen distribution along one yttrium hydride rod was evaluated with XRD analysis on materials extracted from different locations on the rod. The results indicated a relatively homogeneous hydrogen distribution along the hydride rod, with <3% uncertainty in the fraction of the δ-phase hydride. In addition, significant efforts are being dedicated to establish a complete database summarizing the thermomechanical and physical properties of as-fabricated yttrium hydride and the irradiation response to facilitate its deployment as a high-temperature moderator in advanced nuclear reactors.
36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
Scaling Outlooks on Integrated Energy Systems
The report provides research summaries of two developed theories: data projection to enable multi-scale facility digital interactions and introducing the Evaluation Model Development and Assessment Process (EMDAP) approach to Integrated Energy Systems (IES) design. For the data projection, a two-system scaling case including interactions between thermal storage and hydrogen production is provided. The corresponding facilities are the thermal energy distribution system (TEDS) facility and high temperature steam electrolysis (HTSE) facility at the Dynamic Energy Transport and Integration Laboratory (DETAIL) in Idaho National Laboratory (INL). For the EMDAP adaption to system design, a modified process of the EMDAP was developed and applied to indirect two-tank heat storage system design. System phenomena were identified, ranked, and scaled to discover helpful key relations that would determine the ideal component geometry.
08 HYDROGEN↗
SynthEsizing Novel H2 Sensors for Operational Resilience in Pipeline Infrastructure (SENSOR) (CRADA Final Report)
Hydrogen (H₂) is gaining attention as a versatile energy carrier with potential applications across industrial processes, power generation, and transportation. However, its practical deployment, particularly in large-scale distribution systems, faces significant infrastructure challenges. Transporting hydrogen through dedicated pipelines or blending it into existing natural gas networks can lead to serious issues, such as leakage due to the small size of hydrogen molecules and material degradation in pipelines through embrittlement. These technical risks raise safety concerns and could limit the integration of hydrogen into current energy infrastructures. Additionally, using hydrogen-enriched gas mixtures in combustion systems like turbines and engines introduces new performance and compatibility challenges that must be resolved before widespread use becomes feasible.
08 HYDROGEN↗
Physical and Thermomechanical Properties of Yttrium Hydride from Large Scale Bulk Metal Hydriding Furnace
Given the superior thermal stability and highly attainable hydrogen density, yttrium hydride is an excellent high-temperature moderator material in advanced thermal neutron spectrum reactors that require small core volumes. Yttrium hydride has been selected as the moderator material for the Transformational Challenge Reactor, which was launched at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in 2019. However, fabrication of large-scale crack-free yttrium hydride is challenging and very limited efforts have been committed to the characterization of bulk yttrium hydride in response to the need to establish a complete database of the thermomechanical properties of YHx. In this report, the challenges associated with fabricating large-scale crack-free yttrium hydride are discussed herein. In response to those challenges, a hydriding system was designed and constructed at ORNL and was used to successfully fabricate crack-free yttrium hydride in complex geometries at large scales. This was accomplished by precisely controlling the hydrogen’s partial pressure and the retort temperature, which was informed by the well-established thermodynamic properties of the binary H-Y system. Hydrogen content in as-fabricated hydride was determined by the weight change method and vacuum hot extraction technique, complemented by the X-ray diffraction (XRD). In addition, significant efforts are being dedicated to establishing a complete database of the thermomechanical properties of as-fabricated yttrium hydride. In FY2020, we investigated the thermophysical properties of yttrium hydrides as a function of temperature (room temperature to 700°C) and hydrogen concentration (H/Y ratio ranges from 1.52 to 1.93). The results indicate that at the temperatures below 300 °C, the hydrogen content did not have a significant influence on the thermal expansion, while the specific heat capacity, the thermal diffusivity, and the calculated thermal conductivity were slightly higher for the higher H/Y ratio. Between 300°C and 700 °C, a reversible second-order endothermic transition in all measured thermal properties was observed. It was also found that the onset temperatures of the observed transition varied, with the composition having inverse dependence on the hydrogen content. An attempt was made to explain the behavior of the thermophysical properties at higher temperatures by considering the order– disorder transition as a result of hydrogen redistribution. In addition, nanoindentation was employed to determine the elastic modulus and hardness and to capture the crystal orientation dependence of these parameters. Vickers hardness was also reported. The final section of the report introduces ongoing neutron irradiation campaign of yttrium hydride.
22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL WELD EMBRITTLEMENT BY HYDROGEN AND TRITIUM
-Commercialization of fusion power requires large scale, local re processing of D/T fuel, with throughputs ~1/6 of current global tritium supply per plant per day -Tritium is a radioactive material that has special needs in handling, processing, and storage -Tritium’s effects on the safety performance of primary pressure boundary materials (likely austenitic stainless steel) will be important for regulatory acceptance
KRENTZ, TIMOTHY M.↗
Underground Hydrogen Storage: Transforming Subsurface Science into Sustainable Energy Solutions
As the global economy moves toward net-zero carbon emissions, large-scale energy storage becomes essential to tackle the seasonal nature of renewable sources. Underground hydrogen storage (UHS) offers a feasible solution by allowing surplus renewable energy to be transformed into hydrogen and stored in deep geological formations such as aquifers, salt caverns, or depleted reservoirs, making it available for use on demand. This study thoroughly evaluates UHS concepts, procedures, and challenges. This paper analyzes the most recent breakthroughs in UHS technology and identifies special conditions needed for its successful application, including site selection guidelines, technical and geological factors, and the significance of storage characteristics. The integrity of wells and caprock, which is important for safe and efficient storage, can be affected by the operating dynamics of the hydrogen cycle, notably the fluctuations in pressure and stress within storage formations. To evaluate its potential for broader adoption, we also examined economic elements such as cost-effectiveness and the technical practicality of large-scale storage. We also reviewed current UHS efforts and identified key knowledge gaps, primarily in the areas of hydrogen–rock interactions, geochemistry, gas migration control, microbial activities, and geomechanical stability. Resolving these technological challenges, regulatory frameworks, and environmental sustainability are essential to UHS’s long-term and extensive integration into the energy industry. This article provides a roadmap for UHS research and development, emphasizing the need for further research to fully realize the technology’s promise as a pillar of the hydrogen economy.
25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
Demonstration of Electrolyzer Operation at a Nuclear Plant to Allow for Dynamic Participation in an Organized Electricity Market and In-House Hydrogen Supply
This document details the execution of Cooperative Agreement DE-EE0008849, “demonstration of electrolyzer operation at a nuclear plant to allow for dynamic participation in an organized electricity market and in-house hydrogen supply” during the performance period of 10/1/2019 – 9/30/2024. The project was funded by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE). Constellation Energy Generation, LLC (formerly Exelon Generation Company, LLC) is the prime recipient of the award. Other members of the project team are INL, NREL, ANL and Nel Hydrogen. The main project objective was to demonstrate an end-to-end integrated grid-scale carbon-free H 2 production, storage and utilization pilot plant at a nuclear generating facility. The project also aimed to evaluate market opportunities and regulatory requirements related to the participation of integrated hydrogen production and nuclear plant facilities in organized power markets, by demonstrating dynamic control and operation of the electrolyzer and assessing the economics of dynamic participation combined with the revenue streams from hydrogen production. On March 7th , 2023 Constellation started hydrogen production at it’s Nine Mile Point Nuclear Plant in Oswego, New York. The PEM electrolyzer operating at Nine Mile Point uses 1.25 megawatt of nuclear electricity to produce 560 kilograms of clean hydrogen per day, more than enough to meet the plant’s operational hydrogen use. It will also help set the stage for possible large-scale deployments at other clean energy centers in Constellation’s fleet that would couple clean hydrogen production with storage and other on-site uses. Employing the lessons learned from the 1.25 MW demonstration-scale, nuclear-powered clean hydrogen production facility at Nine Mile Point, Constellation was a major participant in the MachH2 hydrogen hub recently selected for up to $\$$1 billion by the Department of Energy (DOE) as part of the bipartisan Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act. Constellation will use a portion of the hub funding to build the world’s largest nuclear-powered clean hydrogen production facility at its LaSalle Clean Energy Center in Illinois. The project was featured in a number of news articles and press releases and received 2 awards. At the 2023 DOE HFTO’s Annual Merit Review meeting, the P.I. Dr. Uuganbayar Otgonbaatar and project manager Robert Beaumont were recognized for “outstanding achievements in the development and demonstration of a first-of-a-kind clean hydrogen production facility, powered by carbon-free nuclear energy, at the Nine Mile Point Nuclear Station in Oswego, New York.” The project was also awarded 2023 Nuclear Energy Institute’s Top Innovative Practice award.
08 HYDROGEN↗
Strategies for Achieving the DOE Hydrogen Shot Goal: Thermal Conversion Approaches
In July 2021 the United States (U.S.) Department of Energy (DOE) launched the first of a series of Department-wide Energy Earthshot goals designed to accelerate breakthroughs of more abundant, affordable, and reliable clean energy solutions within the decade. The Hydrogen Shot goal seeks to reduce the cost of clean hydrogen to $\$$1 per 1 kilogram in 1 decade ("1 1 1"). Today, thermal conversion of fossil fuels represents the predominant, lowest cost method of hydrogen production. In 2020 approximately 75 percent of global, dedicated hydrogen production was produced via fossil fuels using thermal conversion approaches such as steam reforming and gasification. However, carbon management techniques such as CO 2 capture and sequestration (CCS) and pyrolysis are not widely represented in the current fossil-based hydrogen production fleet. Lowering the cost of clean hydrogen production from commercial and advanced thermal conversion-based technologies is critical for successfully achieving the Hydrogen Shot goal. This report presents the findings from an initial screening analysis of several scenarios that explore cost drivers related to clean hydrogen production. The screening encompasses commercially available and developing thermal conversion technology alternatives as well as factors exogenous to the plant such as feedstock/byproduct pricing, CO 2 pipeline and storage infrastructure costs, and scale to assess potential pathways towards meeting the Hydrogen Shot goal. Additionally, this report presents initial Research and Development (R&D) strategies to advance thermal conversion technology towards meeting the Hydrogen Shot goal.
08 HYDROGEN↗
Hydrogen Shot Technology Assessment: Thermal Conversion Approaches
In July 2021 the United States (U.S.) Department of Energy (DOE) launched the first of a series of Department-wide Energy Earthshot™ goals designed to accelerate breakthroughs of more abundant, affordable, and reliable clean energy solutions within the decade. The Hydrogen Shot goal seeks to reduce the cost of clean hydrogen to $\$$1 per 1 kilogram in 1 decade ("1 1 1"). Today, thermal conversion of fossil fuels represents the predominant, lowest cost method of hydrogen production. In 2020 approximately 75 percent of global, dedicated hydrogen production was produced via fossil fuels using thermal conversion approaches such as steam reforming and gasification. However, carbon management techniques such as CO 2 capture and sequestration (CCS) and pyrolysis are not widely represented in the current fossil-based hydrogen production fleet. Lowering the cost of clean hydrogen production from commercial and advanced thermal conversion-based technologies is critical for successfully achieving the Hydrogen Shot goal. This report presents the findings from an initial screening analysis of several scenarios that explore cost drivers related to clean hydrogen production. The screening encompasses commercially available and developing thermal conversion technology alternatives as well as factors exogenous to the plant such as feedstock/byproduct pricing, CO 2 pipeline and storage infrastructure costs, and scale to assess potential pathways towards meeting the Hydrogen Shot goal. Additionally, this report presents initial Research and Development (R&D) strategies to advance thermal conversion technology towards meeting the Hydrogen Shot™ goal.
08 HYDROGEN↗
Toluene-Methylcyclohexane as Two-Way Carrier for Hydrogen Transmission and Storage
Recognizing the potential role of liquid hydrogen carriers in overcoming the inherent limitations in transporting and storing gaseous and liquid hydrogen, a complete production and use scenario is postulated and analyzed for a two-way carrier. MCH is produced at commercially viable scales in a central location in Texas (TX) by hydrogenation of toluene and transmitted by rail or chemical tankers to northern California (CA), see Fig. 1. MCH is dehydrogenated near city gates to generate fuel-cell quality hydrogen, and toluene is transmitted back to TX.
08 HYDROGEN↗
High Efficiency Reversible Solid Oxide System (Final Technical Report)
This report was generated based upon work supported by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) under the Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office, H2@Scale Initiative, Award Number DE-EE0008847. In this project, FuelCell Energy studied the design and performance of a system rated for 15kWe Charge/3 kWe Discharge energy storage system based on reversible solid-oxide technology.
08 HYDROGEN↗
Breaking $\mathrm{OER}$ and $\mathrm{CER}$ scaling relations via strain and its relaxation in $\mathrm{RuO}$ 2 (101)
Green hydrogen production from abundant water sources is an important component of renewable energy storage. Water oxidation catalysts are typically considered bound by adsorbate scaling relations, limiting their activity for the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) as well as selectivity between OER and the chlorine evolution reaction (CER) that compete in saline water streams. RuO 2 is highly active for both reactions, and recent measurements have shown the OER activity is greater on undercoordinated, high index facets compared to the lowest-energy (110) facet often studied. The growth of such orientations as epitaxial films, however, can result in appreciable strain and potential surface faceting via its relaxation. Here, we find the activity and selectivity towards OER and CER vary with thickness in epitaxial (101) RuO 2 thin films: OER activity decreases 4x as film thickness increases from 8 nm to 48 nm, while CER activity is comparable. Thus, strain and its relaxation can be used to break scaling relationships between OER and CER, highlighting the important role that defects play in selective oxidation processes on RuO 2 in chloride-containing media.
36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
Michigan Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Deployment Plan: H2 FCEV Roadmap 2022
This report describes a roadmap for hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles in the state of Michigan. This plan provides links to relevant information to assess, plan, and initiate hydrogen and FCEV deployment to help meet the energy, economic, and environmental goals for the State of Michigan. Policies and incentives that support hydrogen and fuel cell technology will increase deployment, thus increasing production and creating jobs throughout the supply chain. As deployment increases, an economy of scale will develop and manufacturing costs will decline, positioning hydrogen and fuel cell technology to compete more effectively in a global market without incentives. Policies and incentives to purchase and support the deployment of FCEVs, FCEBs, and hydrogen refueling can be coordinated regionally to maintain this advanced clean transportation sector as a global exporter for long-term growth and economic development. Overall, the execution of this plan will maintain Michigan's role as a global showcase for regionally manufactured transportation technology while reducing NOx and CO 2 emissions and as new jobs are created for businesses and industry.
08 HYDROGEN↗
High-Fidelity Arc-Discharge Model for Hydrogen-Plasma-Smelting-Reduction of Iron Ore
Electrification and use of renewable hydrogen is currently a necessity for decarbonizing the iron-and-steel industry. In this regard, hydrogen plasma smelting reduction (HPSR) is a novel pathway that is being explored for reduction of iron ore. HPSR provides several decarbonization merits compared to conventional blast furnaces. Firstly, the use of renewable hydrogen drastically reduces the CO2 emissions compared to the use of coke. Secondly, renewable electricity in the form of a thermal plasma for making reactive hydrogen species (radicals, ions) are more efficient at reducing iron ore compared to neutral H2. Thirdly, a molten product compatible with downstream processes is obtained from the intense heat transfer from the plasma. However, the scale-up of this technology requires fundamental exploration of hydrogen plasma dynamics and its interaction with complex solid material that include phase changing iron-ore and slag. In this work, we present a first principles continuum scale model for thermal plasmas in Ar/H2 gas mixtures typically used for HPSR. The thermal plasma governing equations for mass, momentum and energy with Lorentz force and Joule heating source terms are solved along with electromagnetic equations for electrostatic and magnetic vector potential. Our solver will be based on Pele, a suite of reacting flow solvers designed for advanced scientific computing architectures (Henry De Frahan et al., Proceedings of SIAM Parallel Processing, 13-25, 2024), and will utilize adaptive mesh generation for enhanced resolutions at locations of intense physicochemical interactions. This study will present the impact of Ar to H2 ratios on excited/dissociated hydrogen species concentrations, plasma temperature and conductivity along with the impact of outgassed species (water, metal vapor, O, OH radicals) from ore surface on gas phase chemistry. Furthermore, the heat and species flux to the surface will be quantified as a function of applied voltages in a transferred arc configuration.
hydrogen plasma↗
Innovative Approaches to the Decommissioning of a Redundant Plutonium Processing Facility - 20147
At Sellafield, in the North West of the United Kingdom (UK), there are a number of redundant plutonium processing facilities. Over the past three decades several decommissioning strategies have been deployed to clean up these redundant facilities. Whilst there have been many successes previously reported, there remain many challenges. As previously presented at WM2017 (Paper Ref 17081) some of these challenges have recently been addressed through a new approach which introduced a number of innovations. The purpose of these innovations is to seek ways to significantly reduce risks to both decommissioning personnel and the environment by minimising the extent of physical 'hands on' decommissioning activities and by simplifying the waste production process. This paper provides an update on the progress of these innovations since 2017. Additionally, the paper also provides details of the new decommissioning technologies which have been introduced over the past 2 years to enable the most challenging aspects of the redundant plutonium processing facility to be decommissioned. These new decommissioning technologies address challenges associated with the preparation of process vessels and pipework to enable their safe in-situ size reduction by remote means: - New decommissioning techniques have been introduced to allow penetrations to be remotely cut into process vessels and pipework to provide a means of accessing and controlling the venting of any potential hydrogen gas present. - Additionally, a new large scale bespoke remote diamond wire cutting machine has been designed and manufactured to enable the process vessels to be size reduced in situ. Both of these new cutting technologies have involved collaborative working with specialist equipment suppliers including extensive development, trialling demonstration and commissioning prior to bringing the equipment into operational service. Several years of work have now culminated in reaching the final stages of decommissioning of the redundant plutonium processing facility with decommissioning of the final process vessels now underway and completion expected by the end of 2019. (authors)
12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
Turbulence and E × B flow correlations across the L-H transition in DIII-D deuterium and hydrogen plasmas
The isotope dependence of the low- to high confinement-mode (L- to H-mode) transition power threshold P LH presents significant challenges for the initial (non-nuclear) hydrogen operations phase of the international thermonuclear experimental reactor (ITER). Here, we examine the isotope dependence of turbulence and E × B flow correlation properties in the L-mode edge plasma, leading up to the L-H transition. At marginal auxiliary power (near P LH ), turbulence is initially suppressed periodically during limit cycle oscillations (LCO) that precede the transition to sustained H-mode confinement. Here, we present evidence that the long-range (toroidal) correlation of the E × B edge plasma flow across the LCO phase is much weaker in hydrogen than in deuterium in the DIII-D tokamak, congruent with the higher threshold power P LH required to access LCO and H-mode in hydrogen. Concomitantly, the time required to initially quench edge turbulence via localized edge E × B flow shear is significantly longer in hydrogen (1–1.5 ms) than in deuterium (approx. 100 µs). No toroidal long-range correlation of the turbulence amplitude is observed, in agreement with expectations based on the relatively short poloidal turbulence correlation length. Radial edge turbulence and flow correlation lengths are longer in deuterium than in hydrogen plasmas as one would expect from ‘naïve’ gyro-Bohm isotope transport scaling, despite the substantially higher thermal flux across the last closed flux surface in hydrogen before the L-H transition. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'H-mode transition and pedestal studies in fusion plasmas'.
70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
Geologic hydrogen: From natural occurrences to anthropogenic generation – A review of fundamentals, potential, challenges and prospects
Growing demand for hydrogen is exposing the environmental and economic limits of reforming-based and carbon-managed supply chains, while the scale-up of electrolytic capacity remains capital-constrained. Geologic hydrogen, defined as molecular H₂ generated and stored within the Earth's crust offers a complementary, potentially lower-cost resource, yet exploration is still ad hoc. This review (1) revisits a global inventory of confirmed hydrogen seeps and subsurface occurrences; (2) analyzes the controlling reactions, migration pathways, and trapping conditions governing these occurrences; (3) proposes a process-based geologic hydrogen system concept analogous to, yet distinct from, the petroleum system; and (4) evaluates potential geologic hydrogen systems within the United States as a representative case study. Here, we contrast natural systems powered by serpentinization, mantle degassing or radiolysis with anthropogenic systems that stimulate the same reactions or convert in-situ hydrocarbons. Stable hydrogen accumulations require generation rates that outpace combined physical, chemical and microbial losses; the Bourakébougou field (Mali) exemplifies a self-recharging, free-gas reservoir sustained by meteoric-water serpentinization beneath an efficient caprock. Prospective geologic hydrogen resources are likely to occur in regions where iron-rich lithologies, deep-seated faults, and low-permeability sealing formations coexist. Applying this principle, we highlight three promising hydrogen play types in U.S. geological terrains: ophiolite belts (Appalachian and Californian regions), the Midcontinent Rift and the Lake Superior banded‑iron formations. Multiphysics numerical models and positive-unlabeled machine-learning workflows help to accelerate play screening and de-risk future production; yet, reaction kinetics, stimulation strategies, and full techno-economic and life-cycle assessments remain pivotal knowledge gaps.
Anthropogenic hydrogen generation↗