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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2020

Integrated Reference Electrodes in Anion-Exchange-Membrane Electrolyzers: Impact of Stainless-Steel Gas-Diffusion Layers and Internal Mechanical Pressure

Alkaline-membrane electrolyzers operating in pure water might provide scalable low-cost H 2 production but currently lag in performance and durability compared to commercial technologies. Typically, membrane–electrode assemblies (MEAs) are optimized in electrolyzers by changing one parameter at a time and assessing the resulting system performance via two-electrode polarization and impedance measurements. These approaches are limited in their ability to assign performance changes and durability to specific electrodes or processes. We integrate a reference electrode with the MEA to separate anode and cathode responses in both polarization and impedance measurements. Here we illustrate the power of the approach by showing how the fiber diameter of stainless-steel gas-diffusion layers (GDLs) affects performance solely at the anode, while changing the thickness of the cathode GDL simultaneously affects the performance of the anode and cathode due to changes in internal pressure from mechanical compression. This finding was obscured in conventional two-electrode measurements. The work thus guides both high-performance alkaline-membrane water-electrolyzer development and illustrates a useful strategy to study structure–activity relationships in the MEA.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

Silicon alloying enhances fast heating rate combustion of aluminum particles

Alloys and composites of aluminum (Al) have shown promise in regulating and enhancing particle combustion for energy generation applications. Recent work on aluminum-silicon (Al-Si) spherical alloy particles has shown improved combustion at low heating rates through enhanced diffusion accompanying a lower melting temperature. This study extends reactivity analysis to higher heating rates, comparing oxidation of Al-Si with Al. Flame speeds of Al-Si powder mixed with molybdenum trioxide (MoO 3 ) powder (Al-Si+MoO 3 ) exhibited a faster transition to steady propagation relative to Al+MoO 3 . Bomb calorimetry experiments revealed up to 5.8% greater early temperature rise for Al-Si powder. Rapid steady propagation for Al-Si mixture and faster temperature rise for Al-Si particles were attributed to accelerated kinetics evidenced in thermal equilibrium analysis of the mixtures using a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). Larger DSC exotherms in the early stages of oxidation (i.e., 480–720 °C) correlated with early heat release and promoted steady flame propagation for Al-Si+MoO 3 compared with Al+MoO 3 . Furthermore, in multiple heating rate DSC studies, Al-Si+MoO 3 ignited at a lower heating rate (i.e., 15 ⁰C/min) than Al+MoO 3 (i.e., 20 ⁰C/min). Both mixtures ignited at temperatures less than 625 °C which is above the melting temperature of Al-Si (574 °C) and below Al (659 °C). Thus, alloy particle fuels with enhanced diffusion-controlled kinetics promote steady flame propagation and show promise for energy generation applications. This is especially promising for technologies driven by enhanced condensed phase combustion such as some propellant additives or applications dependent on reliable burn rates such as pyrotechnic time delay formulations and primers.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Property Measurements of LiF-NaF-KF Molten Salts Doped with Corrosion Products and Oxygen

Measurements of thermophysical properties of molten salts are needed for modeling and simulation activities that support the development of molten salt reactor (MSR) technologies. Properties of interest including transition temperatures, phase behavior, heat capacity, density, volumetric thermal expansion, surface tension, viscosity, thermal diffusivity, thermal conductivity, and vapor pressure are being performed at Argonne. Results of these property measurements are suitable for use in evaluating reactor performance during startup and the early operating life of the reactor. Ingressions of oxygen and moisture into the fuel salt are expected to occur at different times during the operating life of the reactor due to system leaks, maintenance, and refueling activities. The presence of these environmental contaminants induces corrosion of structural materials. The introduction of corrosion-derived species, oxygen and moisture is expected to affect the physical and chemical properties of the salt and operation of the reactor. Previous work performed at Argonne evaluated the effects of fission product dopants on the thermal properties of eutectic LiF-NaF-KF (FLiNaK). Properties of FLiNaK are commonly used to represent those of fluoride-bearing fuel salts. Metallic corrosion products such as chromium and nickel ions together with dissolved oxygen are expected to affect system redox differently than the accumulation of fission products. Work summarized in this report was performed to measure the effects of corrosion products and dissolved oxygen on the phase transitions, and specific heat capacity of FLiNaK. Thermophysical property measurements were made using four salts that were prepared by doping aliquots of a eutectic mixture of FLiNaK with surrogate corrosion products. Controlled additions of CrF 3 and NiF 2 were used as surrogates for corrosion product contamination anticipated during extended reactor operations in which fuel salt is in contact with steel reactor components. Controlled additions of UF 4 from two sources containing known amounts of UO 2 at different concentrations were used to represent oxygen contamination. The phase transitions and specific heat capacities of the four salts were measured by using differential scanning calorimetry. Measurements were made at temperatures spanning the range of 500−900 °C, which is the expected operating range of MSRs. Measured property values were compared to values measured previously with eutectic FLiNaK without dopants. Differences between property values measured for the doped and non-doped salts were compared with the uncertainties of the measurements to determine the significance of the effect of corrosion products and oxygen on salt properties.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
NASA NTRS2005

Cosmic Ray Propagation through the Magnetic Fields of the Galaxy with Extended Halo

In this project we perform theoretical studies of 3-dimensional cosmic ray propagation in magnetic field configurations of the Galaxy with an extended halo. We employ our newly developed Markov stochastic process methods to solve the diffusive cosmic ray transport equation. We seek to understand observations of cosmic ray spectra, composition under the constraints of the observations of diffuse gamma ray and radio emission from the Galaxy. The model parameters are directly are related to properties of our Galaxy, such as the size of the Galactic halo, particle transport in Galactic magnetic fields, distribution of interstellar gas, primary cosmic ray source distribution and their confinement in the Galaxy. The core of this investigation is the development of software for cosmic ray propagation models with the Markov stochastic process approach. Values of important model parameters for the halo diffusion model are examined in comparison with observations of cosmic ray spectra, composition and the diffuse gamma-ray background. This report summarizes our achievement in the grant period at the Florida Institute of Technology. Work at the co-investigator's institution, the University of New Hampshire, under a companion grant, will be covered in detail by a separate report.

Zhang, Ming↗
NASA NTRS2015

Nested Focusing Optics for Compact Neutron Sources

NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and the University of Alabama Huntsville (UAH) have developed novel neutron grazing incidence optics for use with small-scale portable neutron generators. The technology was developed to enable the use of commercially available neutron generators for applications requiring high flux densities, including high performance imaging and analysis. Nested grazing incidence mirror optics, with high collection efficiency, are used to produce divergent, parallel, or convergent neutron beams. Ray tracing simulations of the system (with source-object separation of 10m for 5 meV neutrons) show nearly an order of magnitude neutron flux increase on a 1-mm diameter object. The technology is a result of joint development efforts between NASA and MIT researchers seeking to maximize neutron flux from diffuse sources for imaging and testing applications.

Nabors, Sammy A.↗
DOE OSTI2020

Heat Diffusion in High-Cp Nb3Sn Composite Superconducting Wires

A major focus of Nb3Sn accelerator magnets is on significantly reducing or eliminating their training. Demonstration of an approach to increase the Cp of Nb3Sn magnets using new materials and technologies is very important both for particle accelerators and light sources. It would improve thermal stability and lead to much shorter magnet training, with substantial savings in machines’ commissioning costs. Both Hypertech and Bruker-OST have attempted to introduce high-Cp elements in their wire design. This paper includes a description of these advanced wires, the finite element model of their heat diffusion properties as compared with the standard wires, and whenever available, a comparison between the minimum quench energy (MQE) calculated by the model and actual MQE measurements on wires.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗
NASA NTRS2016

The Use of the Molecular Adsorber Coating Technology to Mitigate Vacuum Chamber Contamination During Pathfinder Testing for the James Webb Space Telescope

As a coating made of highly porous zeolite materials, the Molecular Adsorber Coating (MAC) was developed to capture outgassed molecular contaminants, such as hydrocarbons and silicones. For spaceflight applications, the adsorptive capabilities of the coating can alleviate on-orbit outgassing concerns on or near sensitive surfaces and instruments within the spacecraft. Similarly, this sprayable paint technology has proven to be significantly beneficial for ground based space applications, in particular, for vacuum chamber environments. This paper describes the recent use of the MAC technology during Pathfinder testing of the Optical Ground Support Equipment (OGSE) for the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) at NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC). The coating was used as a mitigation tool to entrap persistent outgassed contaminants, specifically silicone based diffusion pump oil, from within JSC's cryogenic optical vacuum chamber test facility called Chamber A. This paper summarizes the sample fabrication, installation, laboratory testing, post-test chemical analysis results, and future plans for the MAC technology, which was effectively used to protect the JWST test equipment from vacuum chamber contamination.

molecular contamination↗
DOE OSTI2023

Evaluation of Nuclear Spent Fuel Disposal in Clay-Bearing Rock - Process Model Development and Experimental Studies

This report represents the milestone deliverable M2SF-23SN010301072 “Evaluation of Nuclear Spent Fuel Disposal in Clay-Bearing Rock - Process Model Development and Experimental Studies” The report provides a status update of FY23 activities for the work package Argillite Disposal work packages for the DOE-NE Spent Fuel Waste Form Science and Technology (SFWST) Program. Clay-rich geological media (often referred as shale or argillite) are among the most abundant type of sedimentary rock near the Earth’s surface. Argillaceous rock formations have the following advantageous attributes for deep geological nuclear waste disposal: widespread geologic occurrence, found in stable geologic settings, low permeability, self-sealing properties, low effective diffusion coefficient, high sorption capacity, and have the appropriate depth and thickness to host nuclear waste repository concepts. The DOE R&D program under the Spent Fuel Waste Science Technology (SFWST) campaign has made key progress (through experiment, modeling, and testing) in the study of chemical and physical phenomena that could impact the long-term safety assessment of heat-generating nuclear waste disposition in clay/shale/argillaceous rock. International collaboration activities comprising field-scale heater tests, field data monitoring, and laboratory-scale experiments provide key information on changes to the engineered barrier system (EBS) material exposed high thermal loads. Moreover, consideration of direct disposal of large capacity dual-purpose canisters (DPCs) as part of the back-end SNF waste disposition strategy has generated interest in improving our understanding of the effects of elevated temperatures on the engineered barrier system (EBS) design concepts. Chemical and structural analyses of sampled bentonite material from laboratory tests at elevated temperatures are key to the characterization of thermal effects affecting bentonite clay barrier performance. The knowledge provided by these experiments is crucial to constrain the extent of sacrificial zones in the EBS design during the thermal period. Thermal, hydrologic, mechanical, and chemical (THMC) data collected from heater tests and laboratory experiments have been used in the development, validation, and calibration of THMC simulators to model near-field coupled processes. This information leads to the development of simulation approaches to assess issues on coupled processes involving porous media flow, transport, geomechanical phenomena, chemical interactions with barrier/geologic materials, and the development of EBS concepts. These lines of knowledge are central to the design of deep geological backfilled repository concepts where temperature plays a key role in the EBS behavior, potential interactions with host rock, and long-term performance in the safety assessment.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
NASA NTRS2007

Solar Airplanes and Regenerative Fuel Cells

A solar electric aircraft with the potential to "fly forever" has captured NASA's interest, and the concept for such an aircraft was pursued under Aeronautics Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology (ERAST) project. Feasibility of this aircraft happens to depend on the successful development of solar power technologies critical to NASA's Exploration Initiatives; hence, there was widespread interest throughout NASA to bring these technologies to a flight demonstration. The most critical is an energy storage system to sustain mission power during night periods. For the solar airplane, whose flight capability is already limited by the diffuse nature of solar flux and subject to latitude and time of year constraints, the feasibility of long endurance flight depends on a storage density figure of merit better than 400-600 watt-hr per kilogram. This figure of merit is beyond the capability of present day storage technologies (other than nuclear) but may be achievable in the hydrogen-oxygen regenerative fuel cell (RFC). This potential has led NASA to undertake the practical development of a hydrogen-oxygen regenerative fuel cell, initially as solar energy storage for a high altitude UAV science platform but eventually to serve as the primary power source for NASAs lunar base and other planet surface installations. Potentially the highest storage capacity and lowest weight of any non-nuclear device, a flight-weight RFC aboard a solar-electric aircraft that is flown continuously through several successive day-night cycles will provide the most convincing demonstration that this technology's widespread potential has been realized. In 1998 NASA began development of a closed cycle hydrogen oxygen PEM RFC under the Aeronautics Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology (ERAST) project and continued its development, originally for a solar electric airplane flight, through FY2005 under the Low Emissions Alternative Power (LEAP) project. Construction of the closed loop system began in 2002 at the NASA Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio. System checkout was completed, and testing began, in July of 2003. The initial test sequences were done with only a fuel cell or electrolyzer in the test rig. Those tests were used to verify the test apparatus, procedures, and software. The first complete cycles of the fully closed loop, regenerative fuel cell system were successfully completed in the following September. Following some hardware upgrades to increase reactant recirculation flow, the test rig was operated at full power in December 2003 and again in January 2004. In March 2004 a newer generation of fuel cell and electrolyzer stacks was substituted for the original hardware and these stacks were successfully tested at full power under cyclic operation in June of 2004.

Bents, David J.↗
DOE OSTI2022

Radius measurement via super-resolution microscopy enables the development of a variable radii proximity labeling platform

The elucidation of protein interaction networks is critical to understanding fundamental biology as well as developing new therapeutics. Proximity labeling platforms (PLPs) are state-of-the-art technologies that enable the discovery and delineation of biomolecular networks through the identification of protein-protein interactions. These platforms work via catalytic generation of reactive probes at a biological region of interest; these probes then diffuse through solution and covalently “tag” proximal biomolecules. The physical distance that the probes diffuse determines the effective labeling radius of the PLP and is a critical parameter that influences the scale and resolution of interactome mapping. As such, by expanding the degrees of labeling resolution offered by PLPs, it is possible to better capture the various size scales of interactomes. At present, however, there is little quantitative understanding of the labeling radii of different PLPs. Here, we report the development of a superresolution microscopy-based assay for the direct quantification of PLP labeling radii. Using this assay, we provide direct extracellular measurements of the labeling radii of state-of-the-art antibody-targeted PLPs, including the peroxidase-based phenoxy radical platform (269 ± 41 nm) and the high-resolution iridium-catalyzed µMap technology (54 ± 12 nm). Last, we apply these insights to the development of a molecular diffusion-based approach to tuning PLP resolution and introduce a new aryl-azide-based µMap platform with an intermediate labeling radius (80 ± 28 nm).

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

CO 2 Capture Characteristics of Hyperbranched Poly(alkylene imine): A Molecular Dynamics Simulation Approach

This study explores the CO 2 capture characteristics of hyperbranched poly(ethylenimine) (HB-PEI) and poly- (propyleneimine) (HB-PPI) through molecular dynamics simulations using density functional theory-calibrated force fields. Key features such as density, free volume, glass transition temperature, CO 2 /H 2 O distribution, and molecular diffusion are systematically investigated to elucidate structure−function relationships under dry and hydrated conditions. HB-PEI demonstrates a slightly higher density and lower free volume compared to HB-PPI yet shows superior CO 2 capture due to the high amine concentration. Glass transition analysis indicates a higher thermal mobility in HBPEI, enhancing the CO 2 diffusivity. Pair correlation and coordination analyses confirm a stronger affinity of CO 2 with primary and secondary amines, particularly in hydrated environments where water competes with CO 2 for binding sites. Despite its more compact structure, HB-PEI outperformed HB-PPI in CO 2 and H 2 O transport, as confirmed by higher diffusion coefficients across all hydration levels. These findings highlight a critical balance among polymer architecture, amine accessibility, and hydration in designing next-generation solid amine sorbents for efficient direct air capture applications.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2020

Modeling gas–shell mixing in ICF with separated reactants

Mixing between fuel and shell materials in ICF implosions can affect implosion dynamics and even prevent ignition. We use data from a series of separated reactant experiments on the National Ignition Facility to calibrate and test the predictive power of gas–shell mix models. Two models are used to estimate fuel–shell mix: a Reynolds-averaged turbulence model and molecular diffusion. Minor uncertainties in capsule manufacture, experimental conditions, and values for mix model parameters produce significant variation in simulation results. Using input/output pairs from 1D simulations, we train Gaussian process surrogate models to predict experimental quantities of interest. The surrogates are used to construct posteriors for mix model parameters by marginalizing over uncertainties in capsule manufacture and experimental conditions. Mix models are calibrated with a subset of experimental data (neutron yields, ion temperature, and bang time) and tested using the remaining data. In general, both the diffusion and turbulence model correctly predict experimental DT and TT neutron yields. Despite having more free parameters, the turbulence model underpredicts ion temperature at high convergence ratio. Furthermore, the simpler diffusion model correctly predicts these temperatures, suggesting nonhydrodynamic gas–shell mix. The computational model consistently overpredicts DD neutron yield, indicating possible shortcomings outside of the mix model.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
NASA NTRS2002

The narrow pulse approximation and long length scale determination in xenon gas diffusion NMR studies of model porous media

We report a systematic study of xenon gas diffusion NMR in simple model porous media, random packs of mono-sized glass beads, and focus on three specific areas peculiar to gas-phase diffusion. These topics are: (i) diffusion of spins on the order of the pore dimensions during the application of the diffusion encoding gradient pulses in a PGSE experiment (breakdown of the narrow pulse approximation and imperfect background gradient cancellation), (ii) the ability to derive long length scale structural information, and (iii) effects of finite sample size. We find that the time-dependent diffusion coefficient, D(t), of the imbibed xenon gas at short diffusion times in small beads is significantly affected by the gas pressure. In particular, as expected, we find smaller deviations between measured D(t) and theoretical predictions as the gas pressure is increased, resulting from reduced diffusion during the application of the gradient pulse. The deviations are then completely removed when water D(t) is observed in the same samples. The use of gas also allows us to probe D(t) over a wide range of length scales and observe the long time asymptotic limit which is proportional to the inverse tortuosity of the sample, as well as the diffusion distance where this limit takes effect (approximately 1-1.5 bead diameters). The Pade approximation can be used as a reference for expected xenon D(t) data between the short and the long time limits, allowing us to explore deviations from the expected behavior at intermediate times as a result of finite sample size effects. Finally, the application of the Pade interpolation between the long and the short time asymptotic limits yields a fitted length scale (the Pade length), which is found to be approximately 0.13b for all bead packs, where b is the bead diameter. c. 2002 Elsevier Sciences (USA).

NASA Discipline Life Sciences Technologies↗
NASA NTRS2002

Conformal Membrane Reflectors for Deployable Optics

This presentation reports the Phase I results on NASA's Gossamer Spacecraft Exploratory Research and Technology Program. Cornerstone Research Group, Inc., the University of Rochester, and International Photonics Consultants collaborated to investigate the feasibility of free-standing, liquid-crystal-polymer (LCP) reflectors for integration into space-based optical systems. The goal of the program was to achieve large-diameter, broadband. reflective membranes that are resistant to the effects of space, specifically cryogenic environments and gamma-ray irradiation. Additionally, we assessed the applicability of utilizing the technology as tight sails, since, by their very nature, these films offer high-reflectivity at specified wavelengths. Previous research programs have demonstrated all-polymer, narrow-band Specular reflectors and diffuse membrane reflectors. The feasibility of fabricating an all-polymer broadband specular reflector and a narrow-band specular membrane reflector was assessed in the Phase I Gossamer program. In addition, preliminary gamma irradiation studies were conducted to determine the stability of the polymer reflectors to radiation. Materials and process technology were developed to fabricate coupon-scale reflectors of both broad- and narrow-band specular reflectors in Phase 1. This presentation will report the results of these studies, including, the performance of a narrow-band specular membrane. Gamma irradiation exposures indicate limited impact on the optical performance although additional exposure studies are warranted. Plans to scale up the membrane fabrication process will be presented.

Hood, Patrick J.↗
DOE OSTI2024

Discovery of highly potent and ALK2/ALK1 selective kinase inhibitors using DNA-encoded chemistry technology

Activin receptor type 1 (ACVR1; ALK2) and activin receptor like type 1 (ACVRL1; ALK1) are transforming growth factor beta family receptors that integrate extracellular signals of bone morphogenic proteins (BMPs) and activins into Mothers Against Decapentaplegic homolog 1/5 (SMAD1/SMAD5) signaling complexes. Several activating mutations in ALK2 are implicated in fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP), diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas, and ependymomas. The ALK2 R206H mutation is also present in a subset of endometrial tumors, melanomas, non-small lung cancers, and colorectal cancers, and ALK2 expression is elevated in pancreatic cancer. Using DNA-encoded chemistry technology, we screened 3.94 billion unique compounds from our diverse DNA-encoded chemical libraries (DECLs) against the kinase domain of ALK2. Off-DNA synthesis of DECL hits and biochemical validation revealed nanomolar potent ALK2 inhibitors. Further structure-activity relationship studies yielded center for drug discovery (CDD)-2789, a potent [NanoBRET (NB) cell IC50: 0.54 μM] and metabolically stable analog with good pharmacological profile. Crystal structures of ALK2 bound with CDD-2281, CDD-2282, or CDD-2789 show that these inhibitors bind the active site through Van der Waals interactions and solvent-mediated hydrogen bonds. CDD-2789 exhibits high selectivity toward ALK2/ALK1 in KINOMEscan analysis and NB K192 assay. In cell-based studies, ALK2 inhibitors effectively attenuated activin A and BMP-induced Phosphorylated SMAD1/5 activation in fibroblasts from individuals with FOP in a dose-dependent manner. Thus, CDD-2789 is a valuable tool compound for further investigation of the biological functions of ALK2 and ALK1 and the therapeutic potential of specific inhibition of ALK2.

Jimmidi, Ravikumar↗
NASA NTRS1975

Investigation of field induced trapping on floating gates

The development of a technology for building electrically alterable read only memories (EAROMs) or reprogrammable read only memories (RPROMs) using a single level metal gate p channel MOS process with all conventional processing steps is outlined. Nonvolatile storage of data is achieved by the use of charged floating gate electrodes. The floating gates are charged by avalanche injection of hot electrodes through gate oxide, and discharged by avalanche injection of hot holes through gate oxide. Three extra diffusion and patterning steps are all that is required to convert a standard p channel MOS process into a nonvolatile memory process. For identification, this nonvolatile memory technology was given the descriptive acronym DIFMOS which stands for Dual Injector, Floating gate MOS.

Gosney, W. M.↗
NASA NTRS2003

NASA Virtual Glovebox (VBX): Emerging Simulation Technology for Space Station Experiment Design, Development, Training and Troubleshooting

The International Space Station demonstrates the greatest capabilities of human ingenuity, international cooperation and technology development. The complexity of this space structure is unprecedented; and training astronaut crews to maintain all its systems, as well as perform a multitude of research experiments, requires the most advanced training tools and techniques. Computer simulation and virtual environments are currently used by astronauts to train for robotic arm manipulations and extravehicular activities; but now, with the latest computer technologies and recent successes in areas of medical simulation, the capability exists to train astronauts for more hands-on research tasks using immersive virtual environments. We have developed a new technology, the Virtual Glovebox (VGX), for simulation of experimental tasks that astronauts will perform aboard the Space Station. The VGX may also be used by crew support teams for design of experiments, testing equipment integration capability and optimizing the procedures astronauts will use. This is done through the 3D, desk-top sized, reach-in virtual environment that can simulate the microgravity environment in space. Additional features of the VGX allow for networking multiple users over the internet and operation of tele-robotic devices through an intuitive user interface. Although the system was developed for astronaut training and assisting support crews, Earth-bound applications, many emphasizing homeland security, have also been identified. Examples include training experts to handle hazardous biological and/or chemical agents in a safe simulation, operation of tele-robotic systems for assessing and diffusing threats such as bombs, and providing remote medical assistance to field personnel through a collaborative virtual environment. Thus, the emerging VGX simulation technology, while developed for space- based applications, can serve a dual use facilitating homeland security here on Earth.

Smith, Jeffrey D.↗