The High-Resolution Wavelet Transform: A Generalization of the Discrete Wavelet Transforms.
Abstract not provided.
Jimenez Aparicio, Miguel↗
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Tables for the numerical determination of the Fourier transform of a function of time and the inverse Fourier transform of a function of frequency, with some applications to operational calculus methods
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Huss, Carl R↗
Space: It's Not What It Used to Be. A Goddard Approach to This Challenge, Questions About SmallSats, a Few Answers, and the Need for Transformative Thought in a Transformative Time
The "final frontier" is not what is used to be. Advancements in systems capabilities, easier access to orbit, a rapidly expanding spacefaring community saddled with imagination, and innovative approaches to mitigate chronic fiscal constraints are all converging to create novel spaceflight systems and mission architectures. Persons content to apply yesterday's thought to today's challenges stand the risk of finding themselves following instead of leading. The Dellingr 6U CubeSat project ongoing at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center is demonstrating that while there is great potential to achieve compelling science, new systems and processes are required to fully leverage the cost and schedule efficiencies small satellites can yield. In addition, realizing the potential of these platforms in environments more challenging than benign low earth orbit requires spacecraft systems designed for reliable or resilient operation, and reliable components and subsystems.
Johnson, Michael A.↗
Transformable Rhodobacter strains, method for producing transformable Rhodobacter strains
The invention provides an organism for expressing foreign DNA, the organism engineered to accept standard DNA carriers. The genome of the organism codes for intracytoplasmic membranes and features an interruption in at least one of the genes coding for restriction enzymes. Further provided is a system for producing biological materials comprising: selecting a vehicle to carry DNA which codes for the biological materials; determining sites on the vehicle's DNA sequence susceptible to restriction enzyme cleavage; choosing an organism to accept the vehicle based on that organism not acting upon at least one of said vehicle's sites; engineering said vehicle to contain said DNA; thereby creating a synthetic vector; and causing the synthetic vector to enter the organism so as cause expression of said DNA.
59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
Design, Deployment, and Characterization of the World’s First Flexible Large Power Transformer
GE Research and its partner Prolec GE have designed, built and deployed in the field the world’s first flexible power transformer. The flexible power transformer is a transmission class 3-phase autotransformer configurable in impedance and in voltage which allows it to serve as a universal spare for multiple units in a given fleet. However, the key innovation in this new concept is the online adjustable leakage impedance which allows the transformer to change its impedance without interrupting the transmission line operation. The flexible power transformer can be designed with up to three low voltage transmission class ratings and up to 12 impedance values changeable both online and offline. This report provides an overview of the design, manufacturing, testing, and commissioning of the 165kV, 60MVA prototype built including the results of the field performance validation tests. The prototype was specified in collaboration with Cooperative Energy, the utility host. It was designed and tested in the factory according to IEEE standard C57.12.00 and followed all protocols for transportation, installation, and commissioning of a power transformer. In addition to the prototype, a flexible protection system capable of automatically adjusting its settings upon the transformer impedance was also developed and deployed in the for testing and validation. On September 3, 2021 the prototype was energized in Cooperative Energy’s substation in Columbia, Mississippi to become the world’s first flexible power transformer in operation. Its performances and impact on the grid operation were demonstrated through different field tests. Results obtained confirm that the impedance of the flexible transformer can be varied under load through its full range, from 4.3% to 9.3%, without adverse impacts on the line operation, the protection system, the transformer stability and health condition. Results also proved that the flexible transformer is very effective in controlling power transfer through the line or load sharing between units operating in parallel. Indeed, it was proven that higher impedances decrease the thruput power of the transformer while lower impedances increase it. Up to 26MW was controllable on a line loading of 45MVA. It was also possible to demonstrate that the variation of the transformer impedance has no effect on the circulating current between units in parallel, except a minor transient during the impedance change. It was also proven that the flexible protection relay can update its protection settings automatically when the impedance change was detected. The prototype has operated continuously for more than 12 months now with a peak load exceeding 50MVA corresponding to >80% of its ONAN power rating. No alarm, trip or sign of failure has been reported by the utility. In addition to the development and deployment of the flexible transformer prototype, investigations were carried out on new nanodielectric fluids to replace the mineral oil used in power transformers with the goal of reducing their footprint and weight. The key parameters that were targeted for improvement included the breakdown voltage to reduce clearances between windings and tank hence the footprint; viscosity and thermal conductivity to increase the cooling efficiency and therefore to reduce the winding material. Several nanodielectric mixtures with mineral oil including with alumina (Al2O3), titania (TiO2) and Borum Nitrate (BN) with different surfactants have been analyzed and tested. Unfortunately, despite encouraging results no nanofluid candidate has been found viable to replace mineral oil. With the formulations tested, breakdown voltages are generally similar to mineral oil at lower particle contents and worse at higher particle contents. Viscosity appreciably increased at particles concertation over 2 wt% and thermal conductivity increased slightly at 5wt% and appears to be 10-15% higher at 10 wt% particle content. It is recommended to continue investigations to find solutions that can help increase the power density of future flexible power transformers. Flexible power transformers can significantly help the future power grid by providing more flexibility and resiliency. Indeed, by providing voltage and impedance flexibility, flexible power transformers reduce the need for multiple spares, hence inventory costs for utilities. With their online controllable impedance, they can provide support to the grid and help manage short-circuit currents, power flow, line congestion, and grid stability which will become more important with higher penetrations of intermittent renewable resources. During the field validation tests, it was demonstrated that up to 26MW was controllable on a line loading of 45MVA when the transformer impedance was varied from its minimum to its maximum range. Also, with the impedance range, the short-circuit currents could be reduced by up to 38% at the load side of the transformer. With its controllable impedance, flexible transformers can be used in future strategies of grid resilience to help better prepare the grid to face forecasted severe events including storms, heat waves and contingencies. The flexible power transformers can also find role in other applications including high voltage transmission cables such as offshore wind farms where solutions for energizing the cables and managing the reactive power are of critical importance. The designed flexible power transformer is now fully validated and ready for commercialization. Further analysis on the benefits of flexible power transformers for grid stability and short-circuit management including current limiting capability, reclosure and line restoration, control of inrush current, sizing of flexible AC components (FACTS) would help its rapid adoption by the industry.
24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
Modular Controllable Transformers (MCT)
Large Power Transformers (LPTs) are at the heart of the electricity infrastructure and are critical pieces in today’s grid. Aging assets, long turn-around times, transportation delays and dependence on foreign manufacturing for these components have created conditions for points of failure across the system. Moreover, there is no available dynamic control on these passive sections of the grid. For all the automation embedded on the low voltage side of the low voltage side of the system there is absolutely no flexibility on the high voltage side. Changes in power flow patterns are brought about by altering dispatch patterns for generators which requires a coordinated effort and is often time consuming. Traditional FACTS based approaches such as UPFC or HVDC light involve massive modifications to the existing infrastructure. Recent instances of physical attacks on LPTs and the slow recovery process associated with fixing or replacing these damaged units has created an increased awareness for this issue. LPT designs are highly customized owing to specific field requirements. Long lead times coupled with transportation delays make procuring and installing LPTs a lengthy process. In an attempt to minimize the recovery time following an LPT failure, transformer manufacturers have developed mobile transformer units. These units typically consist of either a single-phase or three-phase transformer mounted on a truck and characterized by compact form factors. By reducing the assembly time and transport time these units offer a fast and temporary solution to LPT failures. Several efforts led by DOE, Edison Electric Company (EEI) and North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) have led to the RecX program. RecX transformers consist of single phase transformers transported on specialized assemblies to enable fast restoration and minimal installation time. NERC and EEI have instituted transformer sharing programs like Spare Equipment Database (SED) as well as Spare Transformer Equipment Database (STEP) which encourage utilities to maintain and share a fleet of LPTs. Mobile transformers are typically limited to less than 100 MVA to enable transportation on a trailer. Also, the efficiency of mobile transformer units and RecX transformers is lower since they are temporary solutions. The ideal replacement solution would be one that could utilize a set of standardized transformers while incorporating flexibility to influence metrics like power flow, apparent impedance and voltage profiles. In view of these issues the team at Georgia Tech proposed a concept called Modular Controllable Transformers (MCTs). This project was commissioned as a part of DOE’s Transformer Resiliency and Advance Component (TRAC) program. The approach consists of splitting one large unit rated upwards of 100 MVA with smaller modular, standardized units. Each of these smaller units are augmented with a converter to add power flow, voltage and impedance control. Splitting the power level into multiple units has two important implications. By making smaller units, the transportation times can be reduced drastically. Moreover, even though these units have very specific impedance and other parameters, the augmented converters can make it emulate the unit being replaced. Thus, faster replacement times and added controls are achieved making this an extremely resilient approach. In the event of one modular units failure, the other two controllable units can operate in the most resilient fashion keeping the net system overloads to a minimum. Moreover, for the same probability of failure only a fraction of the system capacity is lost. The converter is augmented on to the tertiary winding of the transformer making it retrofittable in the field without massive modifications to the system. The material proposed in this report highlights design considerations to minimize recovery time as well as results displaying overall improvement in resiliency. The cost analysis of this approach shows significant savings compared to UPFC and HVDC lite based approaches. Extensive analysis was conducted on numerous aspects of this project over the course of this project. Simulation studies were conducted to prove the 5MVA converter design. Challenging BIL constraints and transient issues were addressed over the course of this project. Simulations on EMTP platform presented in consequent sections were used to finely tune the control for the same. A final design for a back-to-back 5MVA neutral-point-clamped (NPC) converter was completed in this project. Furthermore, switching components like high power IGBTs from IXYS Westcode Press-Pack series and ABB Stackpack series were identified for this application. These devices exhibit a blocking voltage of 6.5 kV and a nominal collector current of 900 A. Potential housing options as well as existing commercial option were identified for this converter design. A 56 MVA modular transformer unit was designed with Delta Star Inc. with consultation and inputs from all project members. The transformer cooling systems were chosen to be Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF) to optimize ease of transport. A full Product Requirement Document (PRD) for the converter and the transformer was generated. The team also investigated key aspects of resiliency and how to quantify the same. A metric was developed to analyze resiliency and numerous simulation cases were presented. Increased (N-1) resiliency and outage resistance was showcased through simulation on the Texas Large scale power system. Dynamic control capabilities were also showcased on numerous system level simulations. An IEEE 30 bus system was used to show the ability of the MCT approach to reduce line congestion. Power flow control; a part of the MCTs abilities, showcased a 29% reduction in transformer loading on the same system. Full control over tie line flows was demonstrated on a modified IEEE 13 bus system. Dynamic LTC capabilities were shown through simulation and were compared to traditional LTCs. Furthermore, the ability of the MCTs to alter apparent transformer impedance was simulated to promote standardization of modular transformer units while retaining the ability to emulate a varied range of impedance characteristics. Thus granular control over power flow, voltages, impedances and was presented. Regulatory analysis conducted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) further bolstered the efficacy of the MCT approach and verified the added resiliency achieved due to this approach. As a conclusion, it was proved that the resilience improvement obtained from using the MCT approach is justified by just one failure in a 30-year period. This means that the benefits obtained from using the MCT approach far outweigh the cost of setting this approach up. As a part of the future efforts, the team is proposing building a (12.47-24) kV/400 kVA scaled down unit to control 5MVA of power flows. Emphasis would be laid on using commercial components to speed up the build of these units. Further the actual transport of the modular transformer unit would be a part of this operation and would provide insight into transportation issues. The approach shows much promise and adds key dynamic control on passive sub transmission and transmission sectors.
24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
Role of reactive oxygen species in arsenic-induced transformation of human lung bronchial epithelial (BEAS-2B) cells
Highlights: • Short term exposure of cells to arsenic causes ROS generation. • Chronical exposure of cells to arsenic causes malignant cell transformation. • Inhibition of ROS generation reduces cell transformation by arsenic. • Arsenic-transformed cells exhibit reduced capacity of generating ROS. • Arsenic-transformed cells exhibit increased levels of antioxidants. - Abstract: Arsenic is an environmental carcinogen, its mechanisms of carcinogenesis remain to be investigated. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are considered to be important. A previous study (Carpenter et al., 2011) has measured ROS level in human lung bronchial epithelial (BEAS-2B) cells and arsenic-transformed BEAS-2B cells and found that ROS levels were higher in transformed cells than that in parent normal cells. Based on these observations, the authors concluded that cell transformation induced by arsenic is mediated by increased cellular levels of ROS. This conclusion is problematic because this study only measured the basal ROS levels in transformed and parent cells and did not investigate the role of ROS in the process of arsenic-induced cell transformation. The levels of ROS in arsenic-transformed cells represent the result and not the cause of cell transformation. Thus question concerning whether ROS are important in arsenic-induced cell transformation remains to be answered. In the present study, we used expressions of catalase (antioxidant against H{sub 2}O{sub 2}) and superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2, antioxidant against O{sub 2}{sup ·−}) to decrease ROS level and investigated their role in the process of arsenic-induced cell transformation. Our results show that inhibition of ROS by antioxidant enzymes decreased arsenic-induced cell transformation, demonstrating that ROS are important in this process. We have also shown that in arsenic-transformed cells, ROS generation was lower and levels of antioxidants are higher than those in parent cells, in a disagreement with the previous report. The present study has also shown that the arsenic-transformed cells acquired apoptosis resistance. The inhibition of catalase to increase ROS level restored apoptosis capability of arsenic-transformed BEAS-2B cells, further showing that ROS levels are low in these cells. The apoptosis resistance due to the low ROS levels may increase cells proliferation, providing a favorable environment for tumorigenesis of arsenic-transformed cells.
60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
Development of Toroidal Core Transformers
The original objective of this project was to design, build and test a few prototypes of single-phase dry-type distribution transformers of 25 kVA, 2.4 kV primary to 120 V transformers using cores made of a continuous steel strip shaped like a doughnut (toroid). At different points during the development of the project, the scope was enhanced to include the more practical case of a 25 kVA transformer for a 13.8 kV primary system voltage. Later, the scope was further expanded to design and build a 50 kVA unit to transformer voltage from 7.62 kV to 2x120 V. This is a common transformer used by Con Edison of New York and they are willing to test it in the field. The project officially started in September 2009 and ended in May 2014. The progress was reported periodically to DOE in eighteen quarterly reports. A Continuation Application was submitted to DOE in June 2010. In May 2011 we have requested a non-cost extension of the project. In December 2011, the Statement of Project Objectives (SOPO) was updated to reflect the real conditions and situation of the project as of 2011. A second Continuation Application was made and funding was approved in 2013 by DOE and the end date was extended to May 2014. The technical challenges that were overcome in this project include: the development of the technology to pass the impulse tests, derive a model for the thermal performance, produce a sound mechanical design, and estimate the inrush current. However, the greatest challenge that we faced during the development of the project was the complications of procuring the necessary parts and materials to build the transformers. The actual manufacturing process is relatively fast, but getting all parts together is a very lengthy process. The main products of this project are two prototypes of toroidal distribution transformers of 7.62 kV (to be used in a 13.8 kV system) to 2x120 V secondary (standard utilization voltage); one is rated at 25 kVA and the other at 50 kVA. The 25 kVA transformer passed the impulse test in KEMA high-voltage laboratories. Additional products include: nine papers published in the IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, one patent has been filed, three PhD students were supported from beginning to graduation, five postdoctoral fellows, and three MSc students were partially supported. The electrical characteristics of our dry-type toroidal transformers are similar to those of the oil-immersed pole mounted transformers currently in use by many utilities, but toroids have higher efficiency. The no-load losses of the 50 kVA prototype are only 45 W. A standard transformer has no-load losses between 90 and 240 W. Thus, even the finest transformer built today with standard technology has double the amount of no-load losses than the prototype toroidal transformer. When the manufacturing process is prepared for mass production, the cost of a dry-type toroidal transformer would be similar to the price of an oil-filed standard design. However, because of the greatly reduced losses, the total ownership cost of a toroidal transformer could be about half of a traditional design. We got a grant from Power Bridge NY in the amount of $149,985 from June 2014 to May 2015 to continue developing the transformer with commercialization objectives. We are considering the possibility to incorporate a company to manufacture the transformers and have contacted investors. The current status of the real life testing is as follows: after several months of silence, Con Edison has re-started conversations and has shown willingness to test the transformer. Other companies, PSE&G and National Grid have recently also shown interest and we will present our product to them soon.
42 ENGINEERING↗
TRANSENSOR: Transformer Real-time Assessment INtelligent System with Embedded Network of Sensors and Optical Readout. Final Report
Utilities across the world are wrestling with evolving market dynamics, population growth and climate change. Distributed Energy Resources (DERs) such as solar photovoltaics, distributed generators and energy storage systems are becoming important parts of the U.S. energy mix. These factors are driving an increasing need for low-cost grid asset monitoring. Aside from being costly, traditional utility monitoring systems are not sufficiently robust and do not provide real-time visibility into the condition of grid assets such as transformers. Lack of accurate real-time measurements on performance has resulted in the use of lagging indicators, such as oil sample analysis. To address this need, an innovative embedded optical sensing technology, Transformer Real-time Assessment Intelligent System (TRANSENSOR) was developed, validated and demonstrated in this project. To date, TRANSENSOR has focused on transformers but is extendable to other grid assets. In addition to the technology being embedded into new transformers during manufacturing, a retrofit configuration that can be installed on existing transformers in the field was also developed. It is anticipated that the ability to retrofit existing transformers will help accelerate adoption of the underlying TRANSENSOR technology. Phase 1 of the project focused on laboratory development and qualification of the technology. Following iterations and exploration of relevant optical sensing modalities and multiplexed configurations of interest for the transformer environment, an effective candidate configuration was agreed upon, down-selected and custom-designed for embedding into General Electric (GE) network transformers. Two new GE 500 kilovolt ampere (kVA), 27 kilovolt (kV) distribution network transformers were built with embedded fiber-optic (FO) sensors and successfully qualified per industry standards at GE’s Shreveport, Louisiana facility during Phase 1 of the project. Following the successful completion of Phase 1, the team proceeded to Phase 2, which focused on a field demonstration of the technology. Over Phase 2, the first new GE transformer built with embedded fiber-optic sensors was installed in an above-ground cage and connected to the grid at Con Edison’s Astoria facility. A second transformer equipped with TRANSENSOR was installed in an underground vault. Additionally, an older (1982 year model) GE transformer in an above-ground cage was retrofitted with fiber- optic sensors and reconnected to the grid at ConEd’s facility. Analysis of data acquired from the sensors showed interesting correlations with transformer loading. Additionally, key events such as transformer low-voltage network connection, primary-side energizing, and a pressure loss event from an oil sampling were detected by the TRANSENSOR system. Online data processing/feature extraction algorithms for the second transformer in the underground vault detected key features and event alerts that were transmitted through a wireless 4G connection. The remote deployment concept showed promising results with data collection running for a total of 8 months across the three (3) GE transformers instrumented for the Phase 2 field demonstration. This sets the stage well for further development and commercialization.
24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
The Filtered Abel Transform and Its Application in Combustion Diagnostics
Many non-intrusive combustion diagnosis methods generate line-of-sight projections of a flame field. To reconstruct the spatial field of the measured properties, these projections need to be deconvoluted. When the spatial field is axisymmetric, commonly used deconvolution method include the Abel transforms, the onion peeling method and the two-dimensional Fourier transform method and its derivatives such as the filtered back projection methods. This paper proposes a new approach for performing the Abel transform method is developed, which possesses the exactness of the Abel transform and the flexibility of incorporating various filters in the reconstruction process. The Abel transform is an exact method and the simplest among these commonly used methods. It is evinced in this paper that all the exact reconstruction methods for axisymmetric distributions must be equivalent to the Abel transform because of its uniqueness and exactness. Detailed proof is presented to show that the two dimensional Fourier methods when applied to axisymmetric cases is identical to the Abel transform. Discrepancies among various reconstruction method stem from the different approximations made to perform numerical calculations. An equation relating the spectrum of a set of projection date to that of the corresponding spatial distribution is obtained, which shows that the spectrum of the projection is equal to the Abel transform of the spectrum of the corresponding spatial distribution. From the equation, if either the projection or the distribution is bandwidth limited, the other is also bandwidth limited, and both have the same bandwidth. If the two are not bandwidth limited, the Abel transform has a bias against low wave number components in most practical cases. This explains why the Abel transform and all exact deconvolution methods are sensitive to high wave number noises. The filtered Abel transform is based on the fact that the Abel transform of filtered projection data is equal to an integral transform of the original projection data with the kernel function being the Abel transform of the filtering function. The kernel function is independent of the projection data and can be obtained separately when the filtering function is selected. Users can select the best filtering function for a particular set of experimental data. When the kernal function is obtained, it can be used repeatedly to a number of projection data sets (rovs) from the same experiment. When an entire flame image that contains a large number of projection lines needs to be processed, the new approach significantly reduces computational effort in comparison with the conventional approach in which each projection data set is deconvoluted separately. Computer codes have been developed to perform the filter Abel transform for an entire flame field. Measured soot volume fraction data of a jet diffusion flame are processed as an example.
Simons, Stephen N.↗
Epithelial to mesenchymal transition in arsenic-transformed cells promotes angiogenesis through activating β-catenin–vascular endothelial growth factor pathway
Arsenic exposure represents a major health concern increasing cancer risks, yet the mechanism of arsenic carcinogenesis has not been elucidated. We and others recently reported that cell malignant transformation by arsenic is accompanied by epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT). However, the role of EMT in arsenic carcinogenesis is not well understood. Although previous studies showed that short term exposure of endothelial cells to arsenic stimulated angiogenesis, it remains to be determined whether cells that were malignantly transformed by long term arsenic exposure have a pro-angiogenic effect. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of arsenic-transformed human bronchial epithelial cells that underwent EMT on angiogenesis and the underlying mechanism. It was found that the conditioned medium from arsenic-transformed cells strongly stimulated tube formation by human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Moreover, enhanced angiogenesis was detected in mouse xenograft tumor tissues resulting from inoculation of arsenic-transformed cells. Mechanistic studies revealed that β-catenin was activated in arsenic-transformed cells up-regulating its target gene expression including angiogenic-stimulating vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Stably expressing microRNA-200b in arsenic-transformed cells that reversed EMT inhibited β-catenin activation, decreased VEGF expression and reduced tube formation by HUVECs. SiRNA knockdown β-catenin decreased VEGF expression. Adding a VEGF neutralizing antibody into the conditioned medium from arsenic-transformed cells impaired tube formation by HUVECs. Reverse transcriptase-PCR analysis revealed that the mRNA levels of canonical Wnt ligands were not increased in arsenic-transformed cells. These findings suggest that EMT in arsenic-transformed cells promotes angiogenesis through activating β-catenin–VEGF pathway. - Highlights: • Arsenic-transformed cells that underwent EMT displayed a pro-angiogenic effect. • EMT in arsenic-transformed cells activates β-catenin. • β-Catenin activation increases VEGF expression in arsenic-transformed cells. • β-Catenin activation is likely independent of canonical Wnt signaling. • EMT in arsenic-transformed cells promotes angiogenesis via β-catenin–VEGF pathway.
60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
Roadmap on transformation optics
Transformation optics asks, using Maxwell's equations, what kind of electromagnetic medium recreates some smooth deformation of space? The guiding principle is Einstein's principle of covariance: that any physical theory must take the same form in any coordinate system. This requirement fixes very precisely the required electromagnetic medium. The impact of this insight cannot be overestimated. Many practitioners were used to thinking that only a few analytic solutions to Maxwell's equations existed, such as the monochromatic plane wave in a homogeneous, isotropic medium. At a stroke, transformation optics increases that landscape from 'few' to 'infinity', and to each of the infinitude of analytic solutions dreamt up by the researcher, there corresponds an electromagnetic medium capable of reproducing that solution precisely. The most striking example is the electromagnetic cloak, thought to be an unreachable dream of science fiction writers, but realised in the laboratory a few months after the papers proposing the possibility were published. But the practical challenges are considerable, requiring meta-media that are at once electrically and magnetically inhomogeneous and anisotropic. How far have we come since the first demonstrations over a decade ago? And what does the future hold? If the wizardry of perfect macroscopic optical invisibility still eludes us in practice, then what compromises still enable us to create interesting, useful, devices? While three-dimensional (3D) cloaking remains a significant technical challenge, much progress has been made in two dimensions. Carpet cloaking, wherein an object is hidden under a surface that appears optically flat, relaxes the constraints of extreme electromagnetic parameters. Surface wave cloaking guides sub-wavelength surface waves, making uneven surfaces appear flat. Two dimensions is also the setting in which conformal and complex coordinate transformations are realisable, and the possibilities in this restricted domain do not appear to have been exhausted yet. Beyond cloaking, the enhanced electromagnetic landscape provided by transformation optics has shown how fully analytic solutions can be found to a number of physical scenarios such as plasmonic systems used in electron energy loss spectroscopy and cathodoluminescence. Are there further fields to be enriched? A new twist to transformation optics was the extension to the spacetime domain. By applying transformations to spacetime, rather than just space, it was shown that events rather than objects could be hidden from view; transformation optics had provided a means of effectively redacting events from history. The hype quickly settled into serious nonlinear optical experiments that demonstrated the soundness of the idea, and it is now possible to consider the practical implications, particularly in optical signal processing, of having an 'interrupt-without-interrupt' facility that the so-called temporal cloak provides. Inevitable issues of dispersion in actual systems have only begun to be addressed. Now that time is included in the programme of transformation optics, it is natural to ask what role ideas from general relativity can play in shaping the future of transformation optics. Indeed, one of the earliest papers on transformation optics was provocatively titled 'General Relativity in Electrical Engineering'. The answer that curvature does not enter directly into transformation optics merely encourages us to speculate on the role of transformation optics in defining laboratory analogues. Quite why Maxwell's theory defines a 'perfect' transformation theory, while other areas of physics such as acoustics are not apparently quite so amenable, is a deep question whose precise, mathematical answer will help inform us of the extent to which similar ideas can be extended to other fields. Here, the contributors to this Roadmap, who are all renowned practitioners or inventors of transformation optics, will give their perspectives into the field's status and future development.
71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
Challenges at the Frontiers of Matter and Energy: Transformative Opportunities for Discovery Science
FIVE TRANSFORMATIVE OPPORTUNITIES FOR DISCOVERY SCIENCE As a result of this effort, it has become clear that the progress made to date on the five Grand Challenges has created a springboard for seizing five new Transformative Opportunities that have the potential to further transform key technologies involving matter and energy. These five new Transformative Opportunities and the evidence supporting them are discussed in this new report, “Challenges at the Frontiers of Matter and Energy: Transformative Opportunities for Discovery Science.” Mastering Hierarchical Architectures and Beyond-Equilibrium Matter Complex materials and chemical processes transmute matter and energy, for example from CO2 and water to chemical fuel in photosynthesis, from visible light to electricity in solar cells and from electricity to light in light emitting diodes (LEDs) Such functionality requires complex assemblies of heterogeneous materials in hierarchical architectures that display time-dependent away-from-equilibrium behaviors. Much of the foundation of our understanding of such transformations however, is based on monolithic single- phase materials operating at or near thermodynamic equilibrium. The emergent functionalities enabling next-generation disruptive energy technologies require mastering the design, synthesis, and control of complex hierarchical materials employing dynamic far-from-equilibrium behavior. A key guide in this pursuit is nature, for biological systems prove the power of hierarchical assembly and far- from-equilibrium behavior. The challenges here are many: a description of the functionality of hierarchical assemblies in terms of their constituent parts, a blueprint of atomic and molecular positions for each constituent part, and a synthesis strategy for (a) placing the atoms and molecules in the proper positions for the component parts and (b) arranging the component parts into the required hierarchical structure. Targeted functionality will open the door to significant advances in the harvesting, transforming (e.g., reducing CO2, splitting water, and fixing nitrogen), storing, and use of energy to create new materials, manufacturing processes, and technologies—the lifeblood of human societies and economic growth. Beyond Ideal Materials and Systems: Understanding the Critical Roles of Heterogeneity, Interfaces, and Disorder Real materials, both natural ones and those we engineer, are usually a complex mixture of compositional and structural heterogeneities, interfaces, and disorder across all spatial and temporal scales. It is the fluctuations and disorderly states of these heterogeneities and interfaces that often determine the system’s properties and functionality. Much of our fundamental scientific knowledge is based on “ideal” systems, meaning materials that are observed in “frozen” states or represented by spatially or temporally averaged states. Too often, this approach has yielded overly simplistic models that hide important nuances and do not capture the complex behaviors of materials under realistic conditions. These behaviors drive vital chemical transformations such as catalysis, which initiates most industrial manufacturing processes, and friction and corrosion, the parasitic effects of which cost the U.S. economy billions of dollars annually. Expanding our scientific knowledge from the relative simplicity of ideal, perfectly ordered, or structurally averaged materials to the true complexity of real-world heterogeneities, interfaces, and disorder should enable us to realize enormous benefits in the materials and chemical sciences, which translates to the energy sciences, including solar and nuclear power, hydraulic fracturing, power conversion, airframes, and batteries. Harnessing Coherence in Light and Matter Quantum coherence in light and matter is a measure of the extent to which a wave field vibrates in unison with itself at neighboring points in space and time. Although this phenomenon is expressed at the atomic and electronic scales, it can dominate the macroscopic properties of materials and chemical reactions such as superconductivity and efficient photosynthesis. In recent years, enormous progress has been made in recognizing, manipulating, and exploiting quantum coherence. This progress has already elucidated the role that symmetry plays in protecting coherence in key materials, taught us how to use light to manipulate atoms and molecules, and provided us with increasingly sophisticated techniques for controlling and probing the charges and spins of quantum coherent systems. With the arrival of new sources of coherent light and electron beams, thanks in large part to investments by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Basic Energy Sciences (BES), there is now an opportunity to engineer coherence in heterostructures that incorporate multiple types of materials and to control complex, multistep chemical transformations. This approach will pave the way for quantum information processing and next-generation photovoltaic cells and sensors. Revolutionary Advances in Models, Mathematics, Algorithms, Data, and Computing Science today is benefiting from a convergence of theoretical, mathematical, computational, and experimental capabilities that put us on the brink of greatly accelerating our ability to predict, synthesize, and control new materials and chemical processes, and to understand the complexities of matter across a range of scales. Imagine being able to chart a path through a vast sea of possible new materials to find a select few with desired properties. Instead of the time-honored forward approach, in which materials with desired properties are found through either trial-and-error experiments or lucky accidents, we have the opportunity to inversely design and create new materials that possess the properties we desire. The traditional approach has allowed us to make only a tiny fraction of all the materials that are theoretically possible. The inverse design approach, through the harmonious convergence of theoretical, mathematical, computational, and experimental capabilities, could usher in a virtual cornucopia of new materials with functionalities far beyond what nature can provide. Similarly, enhanced mathematical and computational capabilities significantly enhance our ability to extract physical and chemical insights from vastly larger data streams gathered during multimodal and multidimensional experiments using advanced characterization facilities. Exploiting Transformative Advances in Imaging Capabilities across Multiple Scales Historically, improvements in imaging capabilities have always resulted in improved understanding of scientific phenomena. A prime challenge today is finding ways to reconstruct raw data, obtained by probing and mapping matter across multiple scales, into analyzable images. BES investments in new and improved imaging facilities, most notably synchrotron x-ray sources, free-electron lasers, electron microscopes, and neutron sources, have greatly advanced our powers of observation, as have substantial improvements in laboratory- scale technologies. Furthermore, BES is now planning or actively discussing exciting new capabilities. Taken together, these advances in imaging capabilities provide an opportunity to expand our ability to observe and study matter from the 3D spatial perspectives of today to true “4D” spatially and temporally resolved maps of dynamics that allow quantitative predictions of time-dependent material properties and chemical processes. The knowledge gained will impact data storage, catalyst design, drug delivery, structural materials, and medical implants, to name just a few key technologies. ENABLING SUCCESS Seizing each of these five Transformative Opportunities, as well as accelerating further progress on Grand Challenge research, will require specific, targeted investments from BES in the areas of synthesis, meaning the ability to make the materials and architectures that are envisioned; instrumentation and tools, a category that includes theory and computation; and human capital, the most important asset for advancing the Grand Challenges and Transformative Opportunities. While “Challenges at the Frontiers of Matter and Energy: Transformative Opportunities for Discovery Science” could be viewed as a sequel to the original Grand Challenges report, it breaks much new ground in its assessment of the scientific landscape today versus the scientific landscape just a few years ago. In the original Grand Challenges report, it was noted that if the five Grand Challenges were met, our ability to direct matter and energy would be measured only by the limits of human imagination. This new report shows that, prodded by those challenges, the scientific community is positioned today to seize new opportunities whose impacts promise to be transformative for science and society, as well as dramatically accelerate progress in the pursuit of the original Grand Challenges.
32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
Stacked Transformer for Driver Gain and Receive Signal Splitting
In a high-speed signal transmission system that uses transformer coupling, there is a need to provide increased transmitted signal strength without adding active components. This invention uses additional transformers to achieve the needed gain. The prior art uses stronger drivers (which require an IC redesign and a higher power supply voltage), or the addition of another active component (which can decrease reliability, increase power consumption, reduce the beneficial effect of serializer/deserializer preemphasis or deemphasis, and/or interfere with fault containment mechanisms), or uses a different transformer winding ratio (which requires redesign of the transformer and may not be feasible with high-speed signals that require a 1:1 winding ratio). This invention achieves the required gain by connecting the secondaries of multiple transformers in series. The primaries of these transformers are currently either connected in parallel or are connected to multiple drivers. There is also a need to split a receive signal to multiple destinations with minimal signal loss. Additional transformers can achieve the split. The prior art uses impedance-matching series resistors that cause a loss of signal. Instead of causing a loss, most instantiations of this invention would actually provide gain. Multiple transformers are used instead of multiple windings on a single transformer because multiple windings on the same transformer would require a redesign of the transformer, and may not be feasible with high-speed transformers that usually require a bifilar winding with a 1:1 ratio. This invention creates the split by connecting the primaries of multiple transformers in series. The secondary of each transformer is connected to one of the intended destinations without the use of impedance-matching series resistors.
Driscoll, Kevin R.↗
Trivalent manganese on vacancies triggers rapid transformation of layered to tunneled manganese oxides (TMOs): Implications for occurrence of TMOs in low-temperature environment
Tunneled Mn oxides (TMOs) are common minerals in natural environment, particularly in ferromanganese nodules of oceanic and lake sediments. Their structures host a considerable amount of transition and rare earth metals, thus mediating metal cycling and bearing potential economic interest for exploiting these metals. TMOs form through topotactic transformation of layered Mn oxides (LMOs), such as vernadite, in natural environment. Trivalent Mn (Mn(III)) in the LMO structure is a critical player in the transformation, and the transformation is believed to be extremely slow at room temperature. However, the specific role of Mn(III) and its impacts on the transformation kinetics remains unknown. In the present study, we show that the formation of Mn(III) on vacancies of an LMO is the initial transformation step leading to TMOs, and that the transformation can be rapid at room temperature and circumneutral pH. Specifically, after pre–adsorbed with Mn(II) on vacancies at pH 4, δ–MnO 2 , a hexagonal birnessite analogous to vernadite, starts to transform to a 4 × 4 TMO at 1 h upon incubation at pH 7 and 21 °C under anoxic conditions. The rapid transformation is triggered by the comproportionation reaction between the vacancy-adsorbed Mn(II) and Mn(IV) in δ-MnO 2 that produces Mn(III) on the vacancies. Such intermediate Mn(III)-rich product acts as a precursor for subsequent rapid structural rearrangement to form tunnels. An incubation at lower or higher pH retards the transformation due to an insufficient amount of Mn(III) (pH 6) or the formation of triclinic birnessite (pH 8) as an intermediate product. The presence of O 2 favors the formation of triclinic birnessite at pH 8 and thus retards the transformation whereas O 2 enhances production of Mn(III)–rich hexagonal birnessite at pH 6 and 7 and promotes the transformation. We propose a novel transformation mechanism of LMOs to TMOs, highlighting the role of vacancy–adsorbed Mn(III) in the transformation. Furthermore, this work changes our understanding of TMO formation kinetics and suggests TMOs can readily form in low-temperature redox-fluctuating environment, such as lake and oceanic sediments where Mn(II) often coexists with LMOs.
37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
Detecting the Extent of Eutectoid Transformation in U-10Mo
During eutectoid transformation of U-10Mo alloy, uniform metastable γ UMo phase is expected to transform to a mixture of α-U and γ’-U 2 Mo phase. The presence of transformation products in final U-10Mo fuel, especially the α phase is considered detrimental for fuel irradiation performance, so it is critical to accurately evaluate the extent of transformation in the final U-10Mo alloy. This phase transformation can cause a volume change that induces a density change in final alloy. To understand this density and volume change, we developed a theoretical model to calculate the volume expansion and resultant density change of U-10Mo alloy as a function of the extent of eutectoid transformation. Based on the theoretically calculated density change for 0 to 100% transformation, we conclude that an experimental density measurement system will be challenging to employ to reliably detect and quantify the extent of transformation. Subsequently, to assess the ability of various methods to detect the transformation in U-10Mo, we annealed U-10Mo alloy samples at 500°C for various times to achieve in low, medium, and high extent of transformation. After the heat treatment at 500°C, the samples were metallographically polished and subjected to optical microscopy and x-ray diffraction (XRD) methods. Based on our assessment, optical microscopy and image processing can be used to determine the transformed area fraction, which can then be correlated with the α phase volume fraction measured by XRD analysis. XRD analysis of U-10Mo aged at 500°C detected only α phase and no γ’ was detected. To further validate the XRD results, atom probe tomography (APT) was used to understand the composition of transformed regions in U-10Mo alloys aged at 500°C for 10 hours. Based on the APT results, the lamellar transformation product was found to comprise α phase with close to 0 at% Mo and γ phase with 28–32 at% Mo, and the Mo concentration was highest at the α/γ interface.
11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
Comparison study on transformation of iron oxyhydroxides: Based on theoretical and experimental data
We have investigated the catalytic transformation of ferrihydrite, feroxyhyte, and lepidocrocite in the presence of Fe(II). In this paper, the transformation from akaganeite and goethite to hematite in the presence of trace Fe(II) was studied in detail. The result indicates that trace Fe(II) can accelerate the transformation of akaganeite and goethite. Compared with the transformation of other iron oxyhydroxides (e.g., ferrihydrite, feroxyhyte, lepidocrocite, and akaganeite), a complete transformation from goethite to hematite was not observed in the presence of Fe(II). On the basis of our earlier and present experimental results, the transformation of various iron oxyhydroxides was compared based on their thermodynamic stability, crystalline structure, transformation mechanism, and transformation time. - Graphical abstract: The transformation of various iron oxyhydroxides in the presence of trace Fe(II) was compared based on experimental results, thermodynamic stability, crystalline structure, and transformation mechanism. Highlights: > Fe(II) can accelerate the transformation from akaganeite to hematite. > Small particles of goethite can transform to hematite in the presence of Fe(II). > Some hematite particles were found to be embedded within the crystal of goethite. > The relationship between structure and transformation mechanism was revealed.
37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
Organic matter transformations are disconnected between surface water and the hyporheic zone
Abstract. Biochemical transformations of organic matter (OM) are a primary driver of river corridor biogeochemistry, thereby modulating ecosystem processes at local to global scales. OM transformations are driven by diverse biotic and abiotic processes, but we lack knowledge of how the diversity of those processes varies across river corridors and across surface and subsurface components of river corridors. To fill this gap we quantified the number of putative biotic and abiotic transformations of organic molecules across diverse river corridors using ultra-high-resolution mass spectrometry. The number of unique transformations is used here as a proxy for the diversity of biochemical processes underlying observed profiles of organic molecules. For this, we use public data spanning the contiguous United States (ConUS) from the Worldwide Hydrobiogeochemical Observation Network for Dynamic River Systems (WHONDRS) consortium. Our results show that surface water OM had more biotic and abiotic transformations than OM from shallow hyporheic zone sediments (1–3 cm depth). We observed substantially more biotic than abiotic transformations, and the numbers of biotic and abiotic transformations were highly correlated with each other. We found no relationship between the number of transformations in surface water and sediments and no meaningful relationships with latitude, longitude, or climate. We also found that the composition of transformations in sediments was not linked with transformation composition in adjacent surface waters. We infer that OM transformations represented in surface water are an integrated signal of diverse processes occurring throughout the upstream catchment. In contrast, OM transformations in sediments likely reflect a narrower range of processes within the sampled volume. This indicates decoupling between the processes influencing surface water and sediment OM, despite the potential for hydrologic exchange to homogenize OM. We infer that the processes influencing OM transformations and the scales at which they operate diverge between surface water and sediments.
58 GEOSCIENCES↗