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At least 37 records · Page 2

Finite-difference computations of rotor loads

The current and future potential of finite difference methods for solving real rotor problems which now rely largely on empiricism are demonstrated. The demonstration consists of a simple means of combining existing finite-difference, integral, and comprehensive loads codes to predict real transonic rotor flows. These computations are performed for hover and high-advanced-ratio flight. Comparisons are made with experimental pressure data.

Caradonna, F. X.↗

Fundamental Test of a Hovering Rotor: Comprehensive Measurements for CFD Validation

A model-scale hover test of a 4-bladed, 11.08-ft diameter rotor was recently completed inside the National Full-Scale Aerodynamics Complex 80- by 120-Foot Wind Tunnel test section. The primary objective of the test was to acquire key experimental data for a hovering rotor of sufficient quality and quantity to allow validation of state-of-the-art analysis codes. A comprehensive measurement set has been acquired, including rotor performance, blade airloads, flow transition locations, blade deflections, and wake geometry for a range of tip Mach numbers and collective settings. The present paper provides an overview of the test, including detailed descriptions of the hardware, instrumentation, and measurement systems. In addition, the specific test objectives, approach, and sample results are presented. The full test database, as well as detailed rotor geometry information, will ultimately be shared openly on a NASA-sponsored website to serve as a benchmark validation dataset.

Hover↗

Analytic investigation of helicopter rotor blade appended aeroelastic devices

Analytic evaluations of four different passive aeroelastic devices appended to helicopter rotor blades are presented. The devices consist of a passive tuned tab, a control coupled tab, an all-flying tip and a harmonic dilational airfoil tip. Each device was conceived for improving either aerodynamic performance or reducing vibratory control loads or hub shears. The evaluation was performed using a comprehensive rotor aeroelastic analysis (the G400PA code with appropriate modifications), together with data for a realistic helicopter rotor blade (the UH-60A Blackhawk), in high speed flight (90 m/s, 175 kts). The results of this study show that significant performance (L/(D sub e)) gains can be achieved with the all-flying free tip. Results from the harmonic dilational airfoil tip show the potential for moderate improvements in L/(D sub e). Finally, the results for the passive tuned tab and the control coupled tab, as configured for this study, show these devices to be impractical. Sections are included which describe the operation of each device, the required G400PA modifications, and the detailed results obtained for each device.

Bielawa, Richard L.↗

Coupled CFD/CSD Analysis of an Active-Twist Rotor in a Wind Tunnel with Experimental Validation

An unsteady Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes analysis loosely coupled with a comprehensive rotorcraft code is presented for a second-generation active-twist rotor. High fidelity Navier-Stokes results for three configurations: an isolated rotor, a rotor with fuselage, and a rotor with fuselage mounted in a wind tunnel, are compared to lifting-line theory based comprehensive rotorcraft code calculations and wind tunnel data. Results indicate that CFD/CSD predictions of flapwise bending moments are in good agreement with wind tunnel measurements for configurations with a fuselage, and that modeling the wind tunnel environment does not significantly enhance computed results. Actuated rotor results for the rotor with fuselage configuration are also validated for predictions of vibratory blade loads and fixed-system vibratory loads. Varying levels of agreement with wind tunnel measurements are observed for blade vibratory loads, depending on the load component (flap, lag, or torsion) and the harmonic being examined. Predicted trends in fixed-system vibratory loads are in good agreement with wind tunnel measurements.

Massey, Steven J.↗

A Computational Study of BVI Noise Reduction Using Active Twist Control

The results of a computational study examining the effects of active-twist control on blade-vortex interaction (BVI) noise using the Apache Active Twist Rotor are presented. The primary goal of this activity is to reduce BVI noise during a low-speed descent flight condition using active-twist control. Rotor aeroelastic behavior was modeled using the Comprehensive Analytical Model of Rotorcraft Aerodynamics and Dynamics code and the rotor noise was predicted using the acoustics code PSU-WOPWOP. The accuracy of the analysis was validated through comparisons with experimental acoustic data for the first generation Active Twist Rotor at an advance ratio of mu=0.14. The application of active-twist to the main rotor blade system consisted of harmonic actuation frequencies ranging from 2P to 5P, control phase angles from 0' to 360 , and tip-twist amplitudes ranging from 0.5 to 4.0 . The acoustic analysis was conducted for a single low-speed flight condition of advance ratio =0.14 and shaft angle-of-attack, c^=+6 , with BVI noise levels predicted on a flat plane of observers located 1.1 rotor diameters beneath the rotor. The results indicated reductions of up to 11dB in BVI noise using 1.25 tip-twist amplitude with negligible effects on 4P vertical hub shear.

Fogarty, David E.↗

The Effect of Non-Harmonic Active Twist Actuation on BVI Noise

The results of a computational study examining the effects of non-harmonic active-twist control on blade-vortex interaction (BVI) noise for the Apache Active Twist Rotor are presented. Rotor aeroelastic behavior was modeled using the Comprehensive Analytical Model of Rotorcraft Aerodynamics and Dynamics code and the rotor noise was predicted using the acoustics code PSU-WOPWOP. The application of non-harmonic active-twist inputs to the main rotor blade system comprised three parameters: azimuthal location to start actuation, azimuthal duration of actuation, and magnitude of actuation. The acoustic analysis was conducted for a single low-speed flight condition of advance ratio mu=0.14 and shaft angle-of-attack, a(sub s)=+6deg. BVI noise levels were predicted on a flat plane of observers located 1.1 rotor diameters beneath the rotor. The results indicate significant reductions of up to 10dB in BVI noise using a starting azimuthal location for actuation of 90?, an azimuthal duration of actuation of 90deg, and an actuation magnitude of +1.5 ft-lb.

Fogarty, David E.↗

Overview of Rotor Hover Performance Capabilities at Low Reynolds Number for Mars Exploration

The Evolutionary aLgorithm for Iterative Studies of Aeromechanics (ELISA) software was developed in support of the Rotorcraft Optimization for the Advancement of Mars eXploration (ROAMX) project. ELISA was developed to enable aerodynamic rotor hover optimization for low Reynolds number flows in the Mars atmosphere. ELISA comprises two modules. The first module is dedicated to airfoil optimization and allows for the creation of multi-objective Pareto optimal (PO) airfoil sets with the airfoil performance evaluation performed using OVERFLOW. The second module is dedicated to rotor hover performance optimization and generates multi-objective PO rotor sets with the rotor performance evaluation performed using the comprehensive analysis code CAMRAD II. This paper presents recent updates to the ELISA optimization toolset. The airfoil module now includes variation in section Reynolds number, alongside simultaneous maximization of section lift and minimization of section drag. Consequently, the rotor optimization module can query PO airfoil sets (as a function of section lift, drag, and Reynolds number) and generate PO C81 decks tailored to specific Reynolds numbers, eliminating the need for adequate initial chord guesses and allowing for arbitrary rotor solidities to be studied. Furthermore, the rotor optimization has been extended to incorporate a third dimension, alongside maximization of blade loading and minimization of rotor power. This enables optimization across a relevant density range on Mars, presenting the lowest power rotor hover geometry, for each attainable blade loading, for each density. The goal of this work is to present the relevance of recent updates to the ELISA optimization toolset, by showing full rotor hover optimization using unconventional airfoils across a practical Mars density range, and by presenting various optimizations for changing blade numbers with unconstrained solidity in the Mars atmosphere.

Rotor↗

Design and Performance of Lift-Offset Rotorcraft for Short-Haul Missions

The design and performance of compound helicopters utilizing lift-offset rotors are examined, in the context of short-haul, medium-size civil and military missions. The analysis tools used are the comprehensive analysis CAMRAD II and the sizing code NDARC. Following correlation of the comprehensive analysis with existing lift-offset aircraft flight test data, the rotor performance model for the sizing code was developed, and an initial estimate was made of the rotor size and key hover and cruise flight conditions. The rotor planform and twist were optimized for those conditions, and the sizing code rotor performance model updated. Two models for estimating the blade and hub weight of lift-offset rotors are discussed. The civil and military missions are described, along with the aircraft design assumptions. The aircraft are sized for 30 passengers or 6600 lb payload, with a range of 300 nm. Civil and military aircraft designs are described for each of the rotor weight models. Disk loading and blade loading were varied to optimize the designs, based on gross weight and fuel burn. The influence of technology is shown, in terms of rotor hub drag and rotor weight.

Johnson, Wayne↗

Rotor Performance at High Advance Ratio: Theory versus Test

Five analytical tools have been used to study rotor performance at high advance ratio. One is representative of autogyro rotor theory in 1934 and four are representative of helicopter rotor theory in 2008. The five theories are measured against three sets of well documented, full-scale, isolated rotor performance experiments. The major finding of this study is that the decades spent by many rotorcraft theoreticians to improve prediction of basic rotor aerodynamic performance has paid off. This payoff, illustrated by comparing the CAMRAD II comprehensive code and Wheatley & Bailey theory to H-34 test data, shows that rational rotor lift to drag ratios are now predictable. The 1934 theory predicted L/D ratios as high as 15. CAMRAD II predictions compared well with H-34 test data having L/D ratios more on the order of 7 to 9. However, the detailed examination of the selected codes compared to H-34 test data indicates that not one of the codes can predict to engineering accuracy above an advance ratio of 0.62 the control positions and shaft angle of attack required for a given lift. There is no full-scale rotor performance data available for advance ratios above 1.0 and extrapolation of currently available data to advance ratios on the order of 2.0 is unreasonable despite the needs of future rotorcraft. Therefore, it is recommended that an overly strong full-scale rotor blade set be obtained and tested in a suitable wind tunnel to at least an advance ratio of 2.5. A tail rotor from a Sikorsky CH-53 or other large single rotor helicopter should be adequate for this exploratory experiment.

Harris, Franklin D.↗

Coupled CFD/CSD Computation of Airloads of an Active-Twist Rotor

An unsteady Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes analysis loosely coupled with a comprehensive rotorcraft code for blade trim and aeroelastic effects is presented for a second-generation Active-Twist Rotor. Mesh and temporal sensitives of computed airloads are evaluated. In the final paper, computed airloads will be compared with wind tunnel data for the Active-Twist Rotor test that is currently underway.

Massey, Steven J.↗

Dynamically Tuned Blade Pitch Links for Vibration Reduction

A passive vibration reduction device in which the conventional main rotor blade pitch link is replaced by a spring/damper element is investigated using a comprehensive rotorcraft analysis code. A case study is conducted for a modern articulated helicopter main rotor. Correlation of vibratory pitch link loads with wind tunnel test data is satisfactory for lower harmonics. Inclusion of unsteady aerodynamics had little effect on the correlation. In the absence of pushrod damping, reduction in pushrod stiffness from the baseline value had an adverse effect on vibratory hub loads in forward flight. However, pushrod damping in combination with reduced pushrod stiffness resulted in modest improvements in fixed and rotating system hub loads.

Milgram, Judah↗

An integrated optimum design approach for high speed prop rotors

The objective is to develop an optimization procedure for high-speed and civil tilt-rotors by coupling all of the necessary disciplines within a closed-loop optimization procedure. Both simplified and comprehensive analysis codes are used for the aerodynamic analyses. The structural properties are calculated using in-house developed algorithms for both isotropic and composite box beam sections. There are four major objectives of this study. (1) Aerodynamic optimization: The effects of blade aerodynamic characteristics on cruise and hover performance of prop-rotor aircraft are investigated using the classical blade element momentum approach with corrections for the high lift capability of rotors/propellers. (2) Coupled aerodynamic/structures optimization: A multilevel hybrid optimization technique is developed for the design of prop-rotor aircraft. The design problem is decomposed into a level for improved aerodynamics with continuous design variables and a level with discrete variables to investigate composite tailoring. The aerodynamic analysis is based on that developed in objective 1 and the structural analysis is performed using an in-house code which models a composite box beam. The results are compared to both a reference rotor and the optimum rotor found in the purely aerodynamic formulation. (3) Multipoint optimization: The multilevel optimization procedure of objective 2 is extended to a multipoint design problem. Hover, cruise, and take-off are the three flight conditions simultaneously maximized. (4) Coupled rotor/wing optimization: Using the comprehensive rotary wing code CAMRAD, an optimization procedure is developed for the coupled rotor/wing performance in high speed tilt-rotor aircraft. The developed procedure contains design variables which define the rotor and wing planforms.

Chattopadhyay, Aditi↗

Full Scale Rotor Aeroacoustic Predictions and the Link to Model Scale Rotor Data

The NASA Aeroacoustic Prediction System (NAPS) is used to establish a link between model-scale and full-scale rotor predictions and is partially validated against measured wind tunnel and flight aeroacoustic data. The prediction approach of NAPS couples a comprehensive rotorcraft analysis with acoustic source noise and propagation codes. The comprehensive analysis selected for this study is CAMRAD-II, which provides the performance/trim/wake solution for a given rotor or flight condition. The post-trim capabilities of CAMRAD-II are used to compute high-resolution sectional airloads for the acoustic tone noise analysis, WOPMOD. The tone noise is propagated to observers on the ground with the propagation code, RNM (Rotor Noise Model). Aeroacoustic predictions are made with NAPS for an isolated rotor and compared to results of the second Harmonic Aeroacoustic Rotor Test (HART-II) program, which tested a 40% dynamically and Mach-scaled BO-105 main rotor at the DNW. The NAPS is validated with comparisons for three rotor conditions: a baseline condition and two Higher Harmonic Control (HHC) conditions. To establish a link between model and full-scale rotor predictions, a full-scale BO-105 main rotor input deck for NAPS is created from the 40% scale rotor input deck. The full-scale isolated rotor predictions are then compared to the model predictions. The comparisons include aerodynamic loading, acoustic levels, and acoustic pressure time histories for each of the three conditions. With this link established, full-scale predictions are made for a range of descent flight conditions and compared with measured trends from the recent Rotorcraft Operational Noise Abatement Procedures (RONAP) flight test conducted by DLR and ONERA. Additionally, the effectiveness of two HHC conditions from the HART-II program is demonstrated for the full-scale rotor in flight.

Boyd, D. Douglas, Jr.↗

Helicopter Rotor Blade Computation in Unsteady Flows Using Moving Overset Grids

An overset grid thin-layer Navier-Stokes code has been extended to include dynamic motion of helicopter rotor blades through relative grid motion. The unsteady flowfield and airloads on an AH-IG rotor in forward flight were computed to verify the methodology and to demonstrate the method's potential usefulness towards comprehensive helicopter codes. In addition, the method uses the blade's first harmonics measured in the flight test to prescribe the blade motion. The solution was impulsively started and became periodic in less than three rotor revolutions. Detailed unsteady numerical flow visualization techniques were applied to the entire unsteady data set of five rotor revolutions and exhibited flowfield features such as blade vortex interaction and wake roll-up. The unsteady blade loads and surface pressures compare well against those from flight measurements. Details of the method, a discussion of the resulting predicted flowfield, and requirements for future work are presented. Overall, given the proper blade dynamics, this method can compute the unsteady flowfield of a general helicopter rotor in forward flight.

Ahmad, Jasim↗

Research In Nonlinear Flight Control for Tiltrotor Aircraft Operating in the Terminal Area

The research during the first year of the effort focused on the implementation of the recently developed combination of neural net work adaptive control and feedback linearization. At the core of this research is the comprehensive simulation code Generic Tiltrotor Simulator (GTRS) of the XV-15 tilt rotor aircraft. For this research the GTRS code has been ported to a Fortran environment for use on PC. The emphasis of the research is on terminal area approach procedures, including conversion from aircraft to helicopter configuration. This report focuses on the longitudinal control which is the more challenging case for augmentation. Therefore, an attitude command attitude hold (ACAH) control augmentation is considered which is typically used for the pitch channel during approach procedures. To evaluate the performance of the neural network adaptive control architecture it was necessary to develop a set of low order pilot models capable of performing such tasks as, follow desired altitude profiles, follow desired speed profiles, operate on both sides of powercurve, convert, including flaps as well as mastangle changes, operate with different stability and control augmentation system (SCAS) modes. The pilot models are divided in two sets, one for the backside of the powercurve and one for the frontside. These two sets are linearly blended with speed. The mastangle is also scheduled with speed. Different aspects of the proposed architecture for the neural network (NNW) augmented model inversion were also demonstrated. The demonstration involved implementation of a NNW architecture using linearized models from GTRS, including rotor states, to represent the XV-15 at various operating points. The dynamics used for the model inversion were based on the XV-15 operating at 30 Kts, with residualized rotor dynamics, and not including cross coupling between translational and rotational states. The neural network demonstrated ACAH control under various circumstances. Future efforts will include the implementation into the Fortran environment of GTRS, including pilot modeling and NNW augmentation for the lateral channels. These efforts should lead to the development of architectures that will provide for fully automated approach, using similar strategies.

Calise, A. J.↗

Best Practices for Predicting Acoustics of a Single Rotor Using the NASA RVLT Conceptual Design Toolchain

To facilitate the development of the Urban Air Mobility (UAM) market, the NASA Revolutionary Vertical Lift Technology Project has created the Conceptual Design Toolchain, a suite of tools developed and/or selected to assist rotorcraft designers in all stages of rotorcraft design. Of particular interest to the UAM noise community are the following two steps in this toolchain: comprehensive analysis and acoustic prediction. Since the UAM application is relatively new, there is a need for a systematic study on how best to utilize these codes. To this end, the current study documents best practices for using the comprehensive analysis codes, CAMRAD II and CHARM, along with the acoustic code AARON. Two single rotors are considered: i) a simple rotor and ii) a rotor that is more exemplary of what UAM designers might use. Best practices are presented for the prediction of both tonal and broadband self-noise, along with the corresponding results. The goal is to provide conceptual designers the tools to conduct accurate noise prediction using the RVLT Conceptual Design Toolchain.

Acoustics↗

An Assessment of Comprehensive Code Prediction State-of-the-Art Using the HART II International Workshop Data

Despite significant advancements in computational fluid dynamics and their coupling with computational structural dynamics (= CSD, or comprehensive codes) for rotorcraft applications, CSD codes with their engineering level of modeling the rotor blade dynamics, the unsteady sectional aerodynamics and the vortical wake are still the workhorse for the majority of applications. This is especially true when a large number of parameter variations is to be performed and their impact on performance, structural loads, vibration and noise is to be judged in an approximate yet reliable and as accurate as possible manner. In this paper, the capabilities of such codes are evaluated using the HART II Inter- national Workshop data base, focusing on a typical descent operating condition which includes strong blade-vortex interactions. Three cases are of interest: the baseline case and two cases with 3/rev higher harmonic blade root pitch control (HHC) with different control phases employed. One setting is for minimum blade-vortex interaction noise radiation and the other one for minimum vibration generation. The challenge is to correctly predict the wake physics - especially for the cases with HHC - and all the dynamics, aerodynamics, modifications of the wake structure and the aero-acoustics coming with it. It is observed that the comprehensive codes used today have a surprisingly good predictive capability when they appropriately account for all of the physics involved. The minimum requirements to obtain these results are outlined.

vanderWall, Berend G.↗

Automatic differentiation evaluated as a tool for rotorcraft design and optimization

This paper investigates the use of automatic differentiation (AD) as a means for generating sensitivity analyses in rotorcraft design and optimization. This technique transforms an existing computer program into a new program that performs sensitivity analysis in addition to the original analysis. The original FORTRAN program calculates a set of dependent (output) variables from a set of independent (input) variables, the new FORTRAN program calculates the partial derivatives of the dependent variables with respect to the independent variables. The AD technique is a systematic implementation of the chain rule of differentiation, this method produces derivatives to machine accuracy at a cost that is comparable with that of finite-differencing methods. For this study, an analysis code that consists of the Langley-developed hover analysis HOVT, the comprehensive rotor analysis CAMRAD/JA, and associated preprocessors is processed through the AD preprocessor ADIFOR 2.0. The resulting derivatives are compared with derivatives obtained from finite-differencing techniques. The derivatives obtained with ADIFOR 2.0 are exact within machine accuracy and do not depend on the selection of step-size, as are the derivatives obtained with finite-differencing techniques.

Walsh, Joanne L.↗