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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 37 records · Page 2
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

Rapid grain refinement and compositional homogenization in a cast binary Cu50Ni alloy achieved by friction stir processing

Friction stir processing (FSP) has been increasingly adopted for joining and processing materials in automotive, aerospace and industrial construction. During FSP a dynamic competition between high-speed shear deformation and deformation-induced heating brings about a complex competition between multiple dynamic microstructural evolution mechanisms making it difficult to predict the microstructural evolution pathway. Hence, improved understanding of microstructural evolution mechanisms during FSP can be beneficial for continued growth in the adoption of FSP for demanding applications of future. Towards this goal, this study uses a model binary Cu – 50 at.% Ni alloy to clarify the effect of single and double pass FSP on the microstructural evolution of a coarse grained and compositionally heterogeneous cast microstructure. High energy synchrotron X-ray diffraction, electron backscatter diffraction, and nanoindentation are used to clarify the microstructural evolution due to FSP. The process of compositional homogenization of as-cast segregations is studied by energy dispersive spectroscopy and atom probe tomography. Our results show that a single fast FSP pass at 30 mm.s -1 produces a 100 µm deep layer of submicrometric and hall-petch hardened CuNi grains. The initial cast compositional heterogeneities in a micrometric scale is rapidly transformed to nano-sized domains, mainly confined at grain boundaries. Double pass FSP increases the penetration depth of the processed layer and leads to a 2.9 times grain growth relative to single pass FSP. Grain fragmentation, discontinuous dynamic recrystallization, grain growth, and twinning mechanisms are discussed. In conclusion, these results highlight the value of FSP for ultrafast grain refinement and compositional homogenization of cast alloys.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Towards underwater additive manufacturing via additive friction stir deposition

Given the challenges in feed material supply and quality control, metal additive manufacturing has rarely been implemented in austere environments, especially underwater. This paper explores the underwater operation potential of an emerging solid-state additive technology: additive friction stir deposition, wherein material feeding and bonding are enabled by mechanical forces with minimal influences from water. It is demonstrated that additive friction stir deposition of 304 stainless steel can be successfully performed with the print head and substrate immersed in water. High temperature is reached in the deposition zone (>60% melting temperature); the material deposition behavior is similar to that in typical open-air operation. The as-deposited material is fully-dense, having fewer annealing twins and a substantially smaller grain size than the feed material (4.98 μm vs. 31.44 μm ). Such microstructural changes stem from dynamic recrystallization caused by the large strain and high temperature introduced during deposition. In addition to grain refinement, small equiaxed dispersoids (~2–3 μm or less) are formed and evenly distributed in the austenite steel matrix. Rich in Cr, Mn, and O, these particles likely result from the reaction between the elements in stainless steel and water at elevated temperatures.

16 TIDAL AND WAVE POWER↗
DOE OSTI2022

Mechanical joint performances of friction self-piercing riveted carbon fiber reinforced polymer and AZ31B Mg alloy

Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) and AZ31B Mg alloy were joined by the friction self-piercing riveting (F-SPR) with different steel rivet shank sizes. With the increase of rivet shank size, lap shear fracture load and mechanical interlock distance increased. Ultrafine grains were formed at the joint in AZ31B as a result of dynamic recrystallization, which contributed to the higher hardness. Fatigue life of the CFRP-AZ31B joint was studied at various peak loads of 0.5, 1, 2, and 3 kN and compared with the resistance spot welded AZ31B-AZ31B from the open literature. The fatigue performance was better at higher peak load (>2 kN) and comparable to that of resistance spot welding of AZ31B to AZ31B at lower peak loads (<1 kN). From fractography, the crack initiation for lower peak load (<1 kN) case was observed at the fretting positions on the top and bottom surfaces of AZ31B sheet. When peak load was increased, fretting between the rivet and the top of AZ31B became more dominant to initiate a crack during fatigue testing.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Molecular-Resolution Electron Imaging of Defects and Dynamics at the Ice-Water Interface

Water crystallization into hexagonal ice (type I h ) is one of the most critical processes relevant to the Earth’s environment and human activities. However, despite recent breakthroughs in imaging non-equilibrium condensed ice structures, the ice-water interface has never been imaged at a molecular resolution. This is primarily due to the low stability of the hydrogen bonds in ice under high-resolution microscopy conditions and a lack of methods to prepare compatible samples. Here, this presentation describes the first molecular-resolution imaging of ice crystallized from liquid water and the ice-water interface using high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). By encapsulating deionized (DI) water between two amorphous carbon (a-C) TEM grids and subsequently freezing it with liquid N 2 on a cryo sample stage, we generated two types of ice: non-equilibrium, condensed ice from the atmosphere and encapsulated ice from the DI water (Fig. 1A). Condensed ice usually shows irregular, spherulitic shapes (Fig. 1B). Selected area electron diffraction (SAED) shows that they are a mixture of cubic and hexagonal crystals (Fig. 1C). On the contrary, encapsulated ice forms thin films that contain large-area single-crystalline regions of hexagonal ice oriented along the [0001] zone axis (Fig. 1D). Differential electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS) confirmed the high purity of the encapsulated ice free from organic contaminations that are common in other encapsulation methods for HRTEM such as graphene liquid cells. These single-crystalline areas are robust under the electron beam up to ~100 e/Å 2 s. Aberration-corrected HRTEM imaging in these areas achieved a line resolution of ~1.3 Å (Fig. 1E and F). This platform allows us to study near-equilibrium ice structures and dynamics at an unprecedented spatial resolution (Fig. 2). For example, we discovered subdomain-rich regions near the defective crystal edges despite the structure appearing single-crystalline according to diffraction criteria. These subdomains connect via low-angle grain boundaries with flat energy landscapes as a function of tilt angles (according to simulations), showing the high tolerance of ice to defect structures. When we tuned the sample temperature and electron flux rate, we observed radiolysis-controlled bubble generation and dissolution in ice single crystals near a steady state of bubble dynamics. Furthermore, rich beam-induced melting and recrystallization dynamics were observed at the ice-water interface with lattice resolution. These data represent the first observation of the ice-water phase transformation at the sub-nanometer level. In summary, the methods developed in this work enabled molecular-resolution observations of ice and the ice-water interface and shed light on the microstructures and phase transformation pathways. Finer control on the temperature, electron irradiation profile, and imaging detector could eventually lead to real-time observation of ice nucleation in water and address long-standing questions in the nucleation pathways.

74 ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Influence of high-strain-rate compression and subsequent heat treatment on (TiNbZr) 89 (AlTa) 11 refractory high-entropy alloys: Dynamic-mechanical behavior and microstructural changes

This study explored the dynamic-mechanical behavior of a novel low-density (TiNbZr) 89 (AlTa) 11 refractory high-entropy alloy (RHEA) across strain rates ranging from 1.0×10 3 to 3.5×10 3 s –1 . A significant increase in the yield and ultimate compressive strengths with rising strain rates up to 3.0×10 3 s –1 was observed and attributed to enhanced dislocation activities and stress-induced microstructural transformations. The formation of the B2 phase and Zr 5 Al 3 precipitates was found to be crucial in bolstering the alloy strength at high strain rates. Beyond strain rates of 3.0×10 3 s –1 , a decrease in strength occurred due to thermal softening and strain localization. Microstructural analyses at 3.5×10 3 s –1 revealed grain refinement, the development of micro shear bands, and dislocation tangles, which were indicative of dynamic recrystallization. Besides, the findings also revealed that the post-dynamic compression heat treatment further enhanced the hardness and microstructural stability of the alloy. These results highlight the potential of the (TiNbZr) 89 (AlTa) 11 RHEA for applications requiring materials with high strength-to-weight ratios, particularly in dynamically loaded environments. It is expected that the results of this study will further advance our fundamental understanding of the behavior of RHEAs under extreme conditions, thereby opening new avenues for material innovation.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Excellent ballistic impact resistance of Al 0.3 CoCrFeNi multi-principal element alloy with unique bimodal microstructure

Multi-principal element alloys represent a new paradigm in structural alloy design with superior mechanical properties and promising ballistic performance. Here, the mechanical response of Al 0.3 CoCrFeNi alloy, with unique bimodal microstructure, was evaluated at quasistatic, dynamic, and ballistic strain rates. The microstructure after quasistatic deformation was dominated by highly deformed grains. High density of deformation bands was observed at dynamic strain rates but there was no indication of adiabatic shear bands, cracks, or twinning. The ballistic response was evaluated by impacting a 12 mm thick plate with 6.35 mm WC projectiles at velocities ranging from 1066 to 1465 m/s. The deformed microstructure after ballistic impact was dominated by adiabatic shear bands, shear band induced cracks, microbands, and dynamic recrystallization. The superior ballistic response of this alloy compared with similar Al x CoCrFeNi alloys was attributed to its bimodal microstructure, nano-scale L1 2 precipitation, and grain boundary B2 precipitates. Deformation mechanisms at quasistatic and dynamic strain rates were primarily characterized by extensive dislocation slip and low density of stacking faults. Deformation mechanisms at ballistic strain rates were characterized by grain rotation, disordering of the L1 2 phase, and high density of stacking faults.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

In situ studies on heavy ion irradiation and partial oxidation induced stacking faults and nanograins in tungsten nanolaminates

Understanding the microstructural evolution of tungsten (W) under extreme irradiation environments is critical for its application as a plasma-facing material in future fusion reactors. Heavy ion irradiation study offers expedited damage accumulation and thus allows irradiation tolerance property prediction in a short period of time. In this study we explore in situ Kr ion irradiation of W nanolaminates at 800 °C and uncover a complex interplay of irradiation-induced transformations, including the emergence of stacking faults, nanograin formation, and generation of thickened grain boundaries defined as GB regions with the thickness of up to 15 nm. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy studies reveal the formation of extended planar faults and a metastable hexagonal close-packed (hcp) phase within the body-centered cubic (bcc) matrix. These structural transitions are facilitated by irradiation-induced shear. They are further stabilized by the presence of oxygen, which promotes stacking fault formation and vacancy trapping. Elevated temperatures enhance defect mobility, enabling dynamic recrystallization into ultrafine grains and the thickening of GBs due to defect absorption and impurity segregation. These findings unravel non-equilibrium phase transformation pathways in heavy ion irradiated W and highlight the critical role of impurity-mediated defect dynamics in governing its radiation tolerance properties.

Wazeer, Adil [Purdue University]↗
DOE OSTI2022

Additive friction stir deposition of SS316: Effect of process parameters on microstructure evolution

Solid state nature of additive friction stir deposition (AFSD) additive manufacturing process is very advantageous in terms of defect formation and microstructural refinement in the material. Current study presents the process optimization, microstructural evolution and kinetics of recrystallization for AFSD deposited low stacking fault energy material - SS316. As deposited microstructure shows equiaxed ultra fine grains with an average grain size of ~5.0 ± 0.5 μm. Shear deformation at high temperature during processing leads to the operation of restoration mechanisms. Observation of necklace type microstructure in the as deposited SS316 is attributed to discontinuous dynamic recrystallization during processing. Recrystallization kinetics of the AFSD SS316 is characterized using Johnson-Mehl-Avarami-Kolmogorov (JMAK) model. Deformation – thermal cycling during AFSD process resulted in inconsistent recrystallization kinetics. Variation in strain, strain rate and temperature during processing with processing parameters result in varying microstructure and tool wear. Further, high strength-ductility combination and sustained work hardening in as deposited SS316 appear to arise from transformation and twinning during deformation, leading to the formation of hierarchical twins and martensitic phase after deformation.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Dynamic Shear Deformation of a Precipitation Hardened Al 0.7 CoCrFeNi Eutectic High-Entropy Alloy Using Hat-Shaped Specimen Geometry

Lamellar eutectic structure in Al 0.7 CoCrFeNi high-entropy alloy (HEA) is emerging as a promising candidate for structural applications because of its high strength-ductility combination. The alloy consists of a fine-scale lamellar fcc + B2 microstructure with high flow stresses > 1300 MPa under quasi-static tensile deformation and >10% ductility. The response to shear loading was not investigated so far. This is the first report on the shear deformation of a eutectic structured HEA and effect of precipitation on shear deformation. A split-Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) was used to compress the hat-shaped specimens to study the local dynamic shear response of the alloy. The change in the width of shear bands with respect to precipitation and deformation rates was studied. The precipitation of L1 2 phase did not delay the formation of adiabatic shear bands (ASB) or affect the ASB width significantly, however, the deformed region around ASB, consisting of high density of twins in fcc phase, was reduced from 80 μm to 20 μm in the stronger precipitation strengthened condition. We observe dynamic recrystallization of grains within ASBs and local mechanical response of individual eutectic lamellae before and after shear deformation and within the shear bands was examined using nano-indentation.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
NASA NTRS2001

Microstructure, Mechanical Properties, Hot-Die Forming, and Joining of 47XD Gamma TiAl Rolled Sheets

The microstructure and mechanical properties, along with the hot-die forming and joining of Ti-47Al-2Nb-2Mn-0.8 vol% TiB, sheets (known as 47XD), produced by a low-cost rolling process, were evaluated. A near-gamma microstructure was obtained in the as-rolled condition. The microstructures of heat-treated sheets ranged from a recrystallized equiaxed near-gamma microstructure at 1,200 to 1,310 C, to a duplex microstructure at 1,350 C, to a fully lamellar microstructure at 1,376 C. Tensile behavior was determined for unidirectionally rolled and cross-rolled sheets for room temperature (RT) to 816 C. Yield stress decreased gradually with increasing deformation temperature up to 704 C; above 704 C, it declined rapidly. Ultimate tensile strength exhibited a gradual decrease up to 537 C before peaking at 704 C, followed by a rapid decline at 816 C. The modulus showed a gradual decrease with temperature, reaching approximately 72% of the RT value at 816 C. Strain to failure increased slowly from RT to 537 C; between 537 C and 704 C it exhibited a phenomenal increase, suggesting that the ductile-brittle transition temperature was below 704 C. Fracture mode changed from transgranular fracture at low temperature, to a mixture of transgranular and intergranular fracture at intermediate temperature, to ductile fracture at 816 C, coupled with dynamic recrystallization at large strains. Creep rupture response was evaluated between 649 and 816 C over the stress range of 69 to 276 MPa. Deformation parameters for steady-state creep rate and time-to-rupture were similar: activation energies of approximately 350 kJ/mol and stress exponents of approximately 4.5. Hot-die forming of sheets into corrugations was done at elevated temperatures in vacuum. The process parameters to join sheets by diffusion bonding and brazing with TiCuNi 70 filler alloy were optimized for test coupons and successfully used to fabricate large truss-core and honeycomb structures. Nondestructive evaluation methods, e.g., ultrasonic C-scans and thermography along with metallography, were used to characterize bond quality. Microstructural evaluation during heat treatment, identification of phases at the braze/matrix interface, determination of shear strengths of brazed joints, and deformation mechanisms during tensile and creep processes will be discussed.

Das, G.↗
DOE OSTI2024

Calibration and validation of the foundation for a multiphase strength model for tin

In this work, the Common Model of Multi-phase Strength and Equation of State (CMMP) model was applied to tin. Specifically, calibrations of the strength-specific elements of the CMMP foundation were developed with a combination of experiments and theory, and then the model was validated experimentally. The first element of the foundation is a 10 multi-phase analytic treatment of the melt temperature and the shear modulus for the solid phases. These models were parameterized for each phase based on ab initio calculations using the software VASP (Vienna Ab initio Simulations Package) based on density functional theory (DFT). The shear modulus model for the ambient β phase was validated with ultrasonic sound speed measurements as a function of pressure and temperature. The second element of the foundation is a viscoplastic strength model for the β phase, upon which strength for inaccessible higher-pressure phases can be scaled as necessary. The stress-strain response of tin was measured at strain rates of 10 -3 to 3 x 10 3 s -1 and temperatures ranging from 87 to 373 K. The Preston-Tonks-Wallace (PTW) strength model was fit to that data using Bayesian model calibration. For validation, six forward and two reverse Taylor impact experiments were performed at different velocities to measure large plastic deformation of tin at strain rates up to 10 5 s -1 . The PTW model accurately predicted the deformed shapes of the cylinders, with modest discrepancies attributed to the inability 20 of PTW to capture the effects of twinning and dynamic recrystallization. Some material in the simulations of higher velocity Taylor cylinders reached the melting temperature, thus testing the multiphase model because of the presence of a second phase, the liquid. In simulations using a traditional modeling approach, the abrupt reduction of strength upon melt resulted in poor predictions of the deformed shape and non-physical temperatures. With CMMP, the most deformed material points evolved gradually to a mixed solid-liquid but never fully liquid state, never fully lost strength, 25 stayed at the melt temperature as the latent heat of fusion was absorbed, and predicted the deformed shape well.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

In situ and ex situ studies of anomalous eutectic formation in undercooled Ni–Sn alloys

Anomalous eutectic formation in undercooled Ni-Sn alloys was investigated by in situ X-ray diffraction and ex situ remelting and annealing experiments. Dynamic recrystallization and partial remelting of primary solids followed by repeated nucleation and growth of eutectic grains in the mushy zone were revealed by time-resolved X-ray diffraction. Ex situ experiments demonstrated that partial remelting of near-equilibrium solidified alloys of eutectic or near-eutectic composition can convert regular lamellar eutectic into anomalous eutectic, whereas high-temperature annealing of splat-quenched alloys of similar composition can convert eutectic or two-phase dendrites into anomalous eutectic. It is concluded that compared to ripening in solid-states, partial remelting of eutectic or two-phase dendrites in a mushy zone provides a more realistic mechanism for anomalous eutectic formation in undercooled solidification of Ni-Sn eutectic alloys. (C) 2020 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Crystal growth↗
DOE OSTI2024

High plasticity in refractory composite fabrication by ultrasonic additive manufacturing

Refractory metal composites are desirable for use in extreme environments that require materials with high specific strengths and resilience to external environments such as that found in nuclear and aerospace. However, due to the high melting temperature of refractories, liquid state joining processes such as welding remains difficult. Ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM) provides a potential route for processing refractory composites because it is a solid-state (i.e., no-melting) process and allows for intermittent machining operations to be performed between welds. Further, to demonstrate refractory composite fabrication, this study utilized UAM to machine a cavity to locate and sequester a Mo foil in a Zircaloy-4 (Zry-4) baseplate and additively build over the top with Zry-4 foils, thereby embedding the Mo in Zry-4 matrix. Significant deformation of the Zry-4 microstructure was observed: this deformation caused adiabatic heating and subsequent dynamic recrystallization through the transformation from α→β and then back to α as the material cooled. Flexural testing of the Zr–Mo composite revealed no delamination or failure, but the strength was not as expected, falling lower than a cold-worked Zry-4 sample. Finite element analysis supported that some bonding must have existed between the Zry-4 and Mo. There was indeed an interdiffusion zone at the Zry-4 foil–Mo foil interface, observing a metastable body-centered cubic β-Zr lathe. It was determined that sufficient strain energy was present to encourage the nucleation of the β-Zr grain along α-Zr grains. Future work is warranted to investigate UAM for refractory composite fabrication.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Modeling shock-induced void collapse in single-crystal Ta systems at the mesoscales

Understanding the role of microstructural heterogeneities on the shock wave propagation and defect evolution behavior is essential to predicting the dynamic response of metals. Heterogeneities, such as voids, provide challenges to understanding the wave propagation behavior as the shock-void interaction can collapse the void and result in large plastic strains and significant heating (hot spot formation) in the metal. Accurate modeling of this phenomenon requires predicting the void collapse mechanisms and the related heat generation and dissipation mechanisms (hotspot formation) that determine the microstructure evolution. While molecular dynamics (MD) simulations can model the void collapse behavior, the time/length scale capabilities pose a challenge to connect with continuum models or the experimental scales. Here, this study presents the capability of the newly developed quasi-coarse-grained dynamics (QCGD) method that extends the MD simulations to larger system sizes and longer times to model this phenomenon. This study uses QCGD simulations to investigate the mechanisms of shock wave interactions with pre-existing voids in single-crystal Ta microstructures for variations in shock pressures, void size, and loading orientations. For a given orientation, the plasticity contributions and rates of void collapse are observed to vary with shock pressures and void size. The larger void sizes and higher pressures result in increased temperatures (hot spots) and faster void collapse rates and unravel the variations in the plasticity contributions. In addition, QCGD simulations investigate the post-collapse microstructure evolution as a release wave travels through the hot spot region. The simulations reveal that the reduction in temperatures due to heat dissipation initiates the dynamic recrystallization behavior in the hotspot regions.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Ultra-high temperature testing and performance of L-PBF C103

Additive Manufacturing (AM) of refractory alloys is gaining traction as a materials processing route for components subject to extreme temperature environments. Due to the low oxidation resistance of refractory alloys, novel methods for evaluating their elevated temperature performance must be developed. In this work, a Gleeble® 3800 thermomechanical load frame was modified to evaluate the mechanical properties of laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) consolidated niobium alloy C103 ranging from room temperature (RT) to 1400 °C. The fixturing and sample geometry were designed to accommodate Joule heating and prevent damage to the test chamber. Oxidation of the samples was minimized via testing in vacuum level of 1E-5 Torr. Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), yield strength (YS), elongation, and strain-hardening behavior were determined as a function of temperature. L-PBF C103 presented an average UTS of ∼650 MPa and over 25 % elongation at RT. Above RT, the UTS and YS dropped then leveled off from 500 °C to 1000 °C with values ranging from ∼400 MPa to ∼460 MPa, which is consistent with dynamic strain aging observed in this class of alloys. The strength rapidly declined after 1200 °C to ∼150 MPa at 1400 °C. Fractography indicated ductile fractures for the C103 at all test temperatures, and Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) analysis revealed a textured microstructure and the presence of dynamic recrystallization within the necked region of the sample tested at 1400 °C.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Adaptively remeshed multiphysical modeling of resistance forge welding with experimental validation of residual stress fields and measurement processes

Welding processes used in the production of pressure vessels impart residual stresses in the manufactured component. Computational modeling is critical to predicting these residual stress fields and understanding how they interact with notches and flaws to impact pressure vessel durability. Here, in this work, we present a finite element model for a resistance forge weld and validate it using laboratory measurements. Extensive microstructural changes, near-melt temperatures, and large localized deformations along the weld interface pose significant challenges to Lagrangian finite element modeling. The proposed modeling approach overcomes these roadblocks in order to provide a high-fidelity simulation that can predict the residual stress state in the manufactured pressure vessel; a rich microstructural constitutive model accounts for material recrystallization dynamics, a frictional-to-tied contact model is coordinated with the constitutive model to represent interfacial bonding, and adaptive remeshing is employed to alleviate severe mesh distortion. An interrupted-weld approach is applied to the simulation to facilitate comparison to displacement measures. Several techniques are employed for residual stress measurement in order to validate the finite element model: neutron diffraction, the contour method, and the slitting method. Model-measurement comparisons are supplemented with detailed simulations that reflect the configurations of the residual-stress measurement processes themselves. The model results show general agreement with experimental measurements, and we observe some similarities in the features around the weld region. Factors that contribute to model-measurement differences are identified. Finally, we conclude with some discussion of the model development and residual stress measurement strategies, including how to best leverage the efforts put forth here for other weld problems.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Constitutive behavior and processing maps of a new wrought magnesium alloy ZE20 (Mg-2Zn-0.2Ce)

ZE20 (Mg-2Zn-0.2Ce) 2 is a new wrought magnesium alloy with improved extrudability and mechanical properties [1]. To understand the constitutive behavior and workability of this new alloy, Gleeble thermomechanical testing has been carried out in this study. The flow stress behavior of ZE20 was investigated between 250 °C–450 °C and 10 –3 s –1 –1.0 s –1 in isothermal compression. Constitutive descriptions of the flow stress are provided. A new general approach at application of the extended Ludwik equation is demonstrated and was found to be more accurate than the hyperbolic sine Arrhenius model while having a similar number of model constants. Processing maps were developed based on the experimental results and are verified with microstructural investigation. A region of safe processing with non-basal texture and high activity of dynamic recrystallization (DRX) was found between 375 °C and 450 °C, from 10 –1 s –1 to 10–2.5 s –1 . A region of potentially safe processing with annealing that is associated with shear band nucleation of non-basal grains was identified for temperatures as low as 300 °C and rates as high as 10 –1 s –1 .

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗