Aerobee NASA 4.144 DG /NRL NB 3.165/ /18 July 1966/ Meteorological data report
Meteorological data to predict rocket impact, and ballistics results tabulated for Aerobee rocket NASA 4.144DG
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Aerobee NASA 4.159 GG /15 July 1966/ Meteorological data report
Meteorological data to predict rocket impact, and ballistics results tabulated for Aerobee rocket NASA 4.159GG
AEROBEE ROCKET↗
Sferics from lightning within a warm cloud.
Sferics from lightning from warm cloud, noting microsecond pulse-train format and temporal duration
CLOUD GLACIATION↗
Project ATS-A
Communications, meteorological, and scientific experiments for applications technology satellite having passive gradient control system
METEOROLOGICAL PROBE↗
The structure of an atmosphere from on-board measurements of pressure, temperature, and acceleration
Planetary atmosphere structure determined from entry vehicle onboard measurements of pressure, temperature, and acceleration
ACCELERATION↗
Field support, data analysis and associated research for the acoustic grenade sounding program
Temperature and horizontal winds in the 30 to 90 km altitude range of the upper atmosphere, were determined by acoustic grenade soundings conducted at Wallops Island, Virginia and Kourou, French Guiana. Field support provided at these locations included deployment of the large area microphone system, supervision, maintenance and operation of sound ranging stations; and coordination of activities. Data analysis efforts included the analysis of field data to determine upper atmospheric meteorological parameters. Profiles for upper atmospheric temperature, wind and density are provided in plots and tables for each of the acoustic grenade soundings conducted during the contract period. Research efforts were directed toward a systematic comparison of temperature data from acoustic grenade with other meteorological sensor probes in the upper atmosphere.
Barnes, T. G.↗
Meteorological radar facility. Part 1: System design
A compilation of information regarding systems design of space shuttles used in meteorological radar probes is presented. Necessary radar equipment is delineated, while space system elements, calibration techniques, antenna systems and other subsystems are reviewed.
Brassaw, L. L., Jr.↗
Work on Planetary Atmospheres and Planetary Atmosphere Probes
A summary final report of work accomplished is presented. Work was performed in the following areas: (1) Galileo Probe science analysis, (2) Galileo probe Atmosphere Structure Instrument, (3) Mars Pathfinder Atmosphere Structure/Meteorology instrument, (4) Mars Pathfinder data analysis, (5) Science Definition for future Mars missions, (6) Viking Lander data analysis, (7) winds in Mars atmosphere Venus atmospheric dynamics, (8) Pioneer Venus Probe data analysis, (9) Pioneer Venus anomaly analysis, (10) Discovery Venus Probe Titan probe instrument design, and (11) laboratory studies of Titan probe impact phenomena. The work has resulted in more than 10 articles published in archive journals, 2 encyclopedia articles, and many working papers. This final report is organized around the four planets on which there was activity, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, and Titan, with a closing section on Miscellaneous Activities. A major objective was to complete the fabrication, test, and evaluation of the atmosphere structure experiment on the Galileo probe, and to receive, analyze and interpret data received from the spacecraft. The instrument was launched on April 14, 1989. Calibration data were taken for all experiment sensors. The data were analyzed, fitted with algorithms, and summarized in a calibration report for use in analyzing and interpreting data returned from Jupiter's atmosphere. The sensors included were the primary science pressure, temperature and acceleration sensors, and the supporting engineering temperature sensors. Computer programs were written to decode the Experiment Data Record and convert the digital numbers to physical quantities, i.e., temperatures, pressures, and accelerations. The project office agreed to obtain telemetry of checkout data from the probe. Work to extend programs written for use on the Pioneer Venus project included: (1) massive heat shield ablation leading to important mass loss during entry; and (2) rapid planet rotation, which introduced terms of motion not needed on Venus. When the Galileo Probe encountered Jupiter, analysis and interpretation of data commenced. The early contributions of the experiment were to define (1) the basic structure of the deep atmosphere, (2) the stability of the atmosphere, (3) the upper atmospheric profiles of density, pressure, and temperature. The next major task in the Galileo Probe project was to refine, verify and extend the analysis of the data. It was the verified, and corrected data, which indicated a dry abiabatic atmosphere within measurement accuracy. Temperature in the thermosphere was measured at 900 K. Participation in the Mars atmospheric research included: (1) work as a team member of the Mars Atmosphere Working Group, (2) contribution to the Mars Exobiology Instrument workshop, (3) asssistance in planning the Mars global network and (4) assitance in planning the Soviet-French Mars mission in 1994. This included a return to the Viking Lander parachute data to refine and improve the definition of winds between 1.5 and 4 kilometer altitude at the two entry sites. The variability of the structure of Mars atmosphere was addressed, which is known to vary with season, latitude, hemisphere and dust loading of the atmosphere. This led to work on the Pathfinder project. The probe had a deployable meteorology mast that had three temperature sensors, and a wind sensor at the tip of the mast. Work on the Titan atmospheric probe was also accomplished. This included developing an experiment proposal to the European Space Agency (ESA), which was not selected. However, as an advisor in the design and preparation of the selected experiment the researcher interacted with scientist on the Huygens Probe Atmosphere Structure Experiment. The researcher also participated in the planning for the Venus Chemical Probe. The science objectives of the probe were to resolve unanswered questions concerning the minor species chemistry of Venus' atmosphere that control cloud formation, greenhouse effectiveness, and the thermal structure. The researcher also reviewed problems with the Pioneer Venus Probe, that caused anomalies which occurred on the Probes at and below 12.5 km level of the Venus' atmosphere. He convened and participated in a workshop that concluded the most likely hardware cause was insulation failure in the electrical harness outside the Probes' pressure vessels. It was discovered that the shrink tubing material failed at 600K. This failure could explain the anomalies experienced by the probes. The descent data of the Pioneer probes, and the Soviet Vega Lander was analyzed to evaluate the presence of small scale gravity waves in and below the Venus cloud layer.
Lester, Peter↗
Wide-range dynamic pressure sensor
Transducer measures pressure by sensing the damping of a vibrating diaphragm immersed in the atmosphere to be measured. Improved sensor can be included in rugged, lightweight package for use aboard aircraft, meteorological vehicles, and space probes.
Dimeff, J.↗
Multiple Probe Measurements at Uranus Motivated By Spatial Variability
Motivation: Spatial variations in the temperature field and composition of Uranus' atmosphere demonstrate a need for multiple entry probes to characterize vertical profiles in multiple locations. We will review variation of composition and temperature, which are produced by dynamical processes on a range of scales from global (polar anomalies, zonal bands) to regional (vortices, storms) [1–2]. In particular, the spatial variation of convective activity is not well understood based on existing remote sensing observations [3]. Understanding how these processes operate, and how they modulate variable composition, is key to constraining bulk atmospheric abundances. Abundances in turn provide cosmochemical constraints on planetary origins. Secondary probes at Uranus: Key measurements for secondary probes are temperature-pressure profiles, along with compositional profiles. Radio occultations are limited to shallow levels less than ~2 bar [4]. In situ temperature-pressure measurements (or atmospheric structure measurements) can unambiguously extend these results to deeper levels. Measurements with vertical resolution of at least 2 km are needed to characterize anomalies like the 1.2-bar feature from the Voyager 2 occultation at 2–6° S [4], which supports a range of temperature gradients depending on assumptions of composition. Simultaneous measurements of temperature, pressure, and composition are key to understanding this class of features. Species such as methane, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia must be measured along a probe descent profile because they vary over several orders of magnitude due to the strong temperature dependence of their saturation vapor pressures [e.g., 5]. Results of these measurements can be interpreted to understand the potential for moist convective activity in the atmosphere. Lessons from the other giant planets: On Jupiter, the Galileo Probe's entry into a meteorologically distinct five-micron hot spot led many to interpret the local composition as column-stretched, so that well-mixed abundances were reached at deeper levels than in surrounding, unperturbed regions [6–8]. Ground-based microwave measurements and Juno data now indicate that the deep depletion of ammonia is a very widespread atmospheric characteristic not limited to 5-µm hot spots [9–11]. But in the absence of multiple probes, we do not know if the other volatiles H2S and H2O behave in the same way. The open questions for the Jupiter case strongly motivate sending multiple probes to Uranus. On Saturn, retrievals of NH3 and PH3 abundances at shallow levels vary with latitude [12], but it is unknown how deep these differences extend, which is why a Saturn probe (or probes) was a mission theme for NASA's New Frontiers 4 and 5 opportunities [13]. Challenges for secondary probes: Cost is an issue due to the perception that it involves sacrifices to other mission elements. Spacecraft trajectories may be constrained by needs for orbit insertion that limit probe deliveries to different latitudes, and additional limitations may be placed on communication windows for probe descent phases (particularly if multiple probes are released from the orbiter simultaneously) [14]. Finally, composition sensors for miniature secondary probes are not at the required technological maturity [15]. Mass spectrometers are typically too large, massive, and powerhungry, while smaller nanosensors are only beginning to be developed for planetary missions. Finally, the need for probe survival heating is most easily met by radioisotope heat sources, but these require regulatory approvals that are even more difficult to satisfy compared to standard environmental reviews [16], unless the secondary probe is designed as a core element of a mission. References: [1] Molter E.M., et al. (2021) PSJ, 2, 3. [2] Rowe-Gurney N., et al. (2021) Icar, 365, 114506. [3] Hueso R., Sánchez-Lavega A. (2019) SSRv, 215, 52. [4] Lindal G.F., et al. (1987) JGR, 92, 14987– 15001. [5] Simon A.A., et al. (2022) RemS, 14, 1518. [6] Atreya, S.K., et al. (1997) in The Three Galileos: The Man, the Spacecraft, the Telescope, pp. 249–260 (C. Barbieri et al., eds.). [7] Showman A.P., Ingersoll A.P. (1998) Icar, 132, 205–220. [8] Friedson A.J. (2005) Icar, 177, 1–17. [9] de Pater I., et al. (2001) Icar, 149, 66–78. [10] Li C., et al. (2017) GeoRL, 44, 5317–5325. [11] de Pater I., et al. (2019) Icar, 322, 168–191. [12] Fletcher L.N., et al. (2009) Icar, 202, 543–564. [13] National Research Council (2011) Vision and Voyages. [14] Sayanagi K.M., et al. (2020) SSRv, 216, 72. [15] Wong M.H. et al. (2021) BAAS, 53, 486. [16] Zide A., Mendoza-Hill A., Cheney D. (2022) COSPAR Abstracts H0.6-0012-22.
Michael H Wong↗
Air deployed expendable probes in oceanographic research
Physical oceanographic instrumentation is both nonexpendable and expendable. Expendable instruments for both shipboard and aircraft use were developed which yield moderate accuracy and precision at a low or moderate unit cost and which may be deployed by less trained personnel on less specialized platforms both in more extreme environmental conditions and while underway. While shipboard expendables are familiar to many researchers, most are not familiar with the variety of air deployable expendables available, although the quasi-synoptic, 3-D view of the ocean that aerial studies yield can be very valuable in oceanographic research. As well as acoustic oriented probes, air deployed sensors exist for the measurement of temperature, sound speed, currents, and optical properties, and work is underway to develop probes measuring simultaneous conductivity and temperature. In addition, low cost drifting buoys with both oceanographic and meteorological sensors are available, and ice penetrating probes are being developed for arctic research. Characteristics of these instruments are presented, along with examples of their use and a discussion of some of their not so well publicized shortcomings.
Boyd, Janice D.↗
NASA DART
A low cost conductivity probe system for use with the Super Loki Dart meteorological sounding rocket is described. Miniaturization of the Super Arcas blunt probe, operation of the blunt probe experiment, flight tests, and development of a Lyman-alpha probe are among the topics discussed.
Hale, L. C.↗
Optical communications for transport aircraft
Optical communications for transport aircraft are discussed. The problem involves: increasing demand for radio-frequency bands from an enlarging pool of users (aircraft, ground and sea vehicles, fleet operators, traffic control centers, and commercial radio and television); desirability of providing high-bandwidth dedicated communications to and from every aircraft in the National Airspace System; need to support communications, navigation, and surveillance for a growing number of aircraft; and improved meteorological observations by use of probe aircraft. The solution involves: optical signal transmission support very high data rates; optical transmission of signals between aircraft, orbiting satellites, and ground stations, where unobstructed line-of-sight is available; conventional radio transmissions of signals between aircraft and ground stations, where optical line-of-sight is unavailable; and radio priority given to aircraft in weather.
Stengel, Robert↗
Positive ions in the mesosphere.
Positive ions have been measured using the parachute borne blunt probe, a subsonic system launched on meteorological rockets, which measures polar electrical conductivities in the 30 to 80 km altitude range. A central feature of the daytime positive conductivity profiles is a sharp break occurring between 60 and 70 km which indicates the transition from galactic cosmic ray to solar ultraviolet ionization, and, hence provides information about the nitric oxide density. In the 50-60 km region the positive ion conductivity is relatively constant with altitude and correlates well with atmospheric temperature down to 35 km. Using temperature and pressure profiles and a reduced mobility, the conductivity profiles may be converted to density profiles. The average mid-latitude daytime profile at intermediate solar zenith angles showed a minimum at 63.5 km.
Hale, L. C.↗
The polarimeter and the multispectral radiometer as remote probes of aerosols
Attempts made to establish the viability of the polarimeter as a ground based remote probe of atmospheric aerosols under varying meteorological conditions are reported. Extension radiometer data are also given and a comparison was made with polarimeter data to determine if one could complement/supplement the other. The analyses show that the two instruments are complementary devices and any information obtained from one will greatly facilitate the analysis of the other. Detailed results are given in graphical form.
Kuriyan, J. G.↗
Diurnal variation in the turbulent structure of the cloudy marine boundary layer during FIRE 1987
During the 1987 FIRE marine stratocumulus experiment the U.K. Meteorological Office operated a set of turbulence probes attached to the tether cable of a balloon based on San Nicolas Island. Typically six probes were used; each probe is fitted with Gill propeller anemometers, a platinum resistance thermometer and wet and dry thermistors, to permit measurements of the fluxes of momentum, heat, and humidity. The orientation of each probe is determined from a pair of inclinometers and a three-axis magnetometer. Sufficient information is available to allow the measured wind velocities to be corrected for the motion of the balloon. On the 14 to 15 July measurements were made over the period 1530 to 1200 UTC and again, after a short break for battery recharging and topping-up the balloon, between 0400 to 0900 UTC. Data were therefore recorded from morning to early evening, and again for a period overnight. Six probes were available for the daytime measurements, five for the night. Data were recorded at 4 Hz for individual periods of a little over an hour. The intention was to keep a minimum of one probe at or just above cloud top; small changes in balloon height were necessary to accommodate changes in inversion height. The ability of the balloon system to make simultaneous measurements at several levels allows the vertical structure of the boundary layer to be displayed without resort to composites. Turbulent statistics were calculated from 2 hour periods, one straddling local noon and one at night. These were subdivided into half-hour averaging intervals for the evaluation of variances and fluxes.
Hignett, Phillip↗
Turbulence measurements using tethered balloon instrumentation during FIRE 1987
As part of the surface-based observations conducted on San Nicolas Island, the U.K. Meteorological Office operated a set of turbulence probes attached to a balloon tether cable. Typically six probes were used, each capable of measuring momentum, heat, and humidity fluxes. Two probes were fitted with net radiometers, one positioned above cloud and the other below; a third probe carried a Lyman-alpha hygrometer fitted with a pre-heater for the measurement of total water content. Some preliminary results are presented from the 14th July describing the variation in structure of the cloudy boundary layer during the daytime. This day was characterized by a complete cloud cover, an inversion height of approximately 600 m. and north-westerly winds of approximately 6 m.s(-1). As an illustration the equivalent potential temperature derived from a profile ascent made between approximately 0830 and 0930 (PDT) is shown. The data has been smoothed to a height resolution of about 4 metres. At this time the cloud base was approximately 200 m. and very light drizzle was reaching the surface. The vertical velocity variance and potential temperature flux for two periods are shown; the first (shown by full lines) immediately follows the profile and the second (shown by dashed lines) is central around 1400 (PDT). The data have been normalized by their maximum values in the first period. Cloud base has now risen to approximately 300 m. There is a marked variation during the morning, particularly in sigma w. The net radiative flux above cloud top has by now reached its maximum value.
Hignett, Phillip↗
Rugged, no-moving-parts windspeed and static pressure probe designs for measurements in planetary atmospheres
Instruments developed for making meteorological observations under adverse conditions on Earth can be applied to systems designed for other planetary atmospheres. Specifically, a wind sensor developed for making measurements within tornados is capable of detecting induced pressure differences proportional to wind speed. Adding strain gauges to the sensor would provide wind direction. The device can be constructed in a rugged form for measuring high wind speeds in the presence of blowing dust that would clog bearings and plug passages of conventional wind speed sensors. Sensing static pressure in the lower boundary layer required development of an omnidirectional, tilt-insensitive static pressure probe. The probe provides pressure inputs to a sensor with minimum error and is inherently weather-protected. The wind sensor and static pressure probes have been used in a variety of field programs and can be adapted for use in different planetary atmospheres.
Bedard, A. J., Jr.↗