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NASA NTRS1999

The Mars Pathfinder Mission and Science Results

Mars Pathfinder, the first low-cost, quick Discovery class mission to be completed, successfully landed on the surface of Mars on July 4, 1997, deployed and navigated a small rover, and collected data from 3 science instruments and 10 technology experiments. The mission operated on Mars for 3 months and returned 2.3 Gbits of new data, including over 16,500 lander and 550 rover images, 16 chemical analyses of rocks and soil, and 8.5 million individual temperature, pressure and wind measurements. The rover traversed 100 m clockwise around the lander, exploring about 200 square meters of the surface. The mission captured the imagination of the public, and garnered front page headlines during the first week. A total of about 566 million internet "hits" were registered during the first month of the mission, with 47 million "hits" on July 8th alone, making the Pathfinder landing by far the largest internet event in history at the time. Pathfinder was the first mission to deploy a rover on Mars. It carried a chemical analysis instrument, to characterize the rocks and soils in a landing area over hundreds of square meters on Mars, which provided a calibration point or "ground truth" for orbital remote sensing observations. The combination of spectral imaging of the landing area by the lander camera, chemical analyses aboard the rover, and close-up imaging of colors, textures and fabrics with the rover cameras offered the potential of identifying rocks (petrology and mineralogy). With this payload, a landing site in Ares Vallis was selected because it appeared acceptably safe and offered the prospect of analyzing a variety of rock types expected to be deposited by catastrophic floods, which enabled addressing first-order scientific questions such as differentiation of the crust, the development of weathering products, and the nature of the early Martian environment and its subsequent evolution. The 3 instruments and rover allowed seven areas of scientific investigation: the geology and geomorphology of the surface, mineralogy and geochemistry of rocks and soils, physical properties of surface materials, magnetic properties of airborne dust, atmospheric science including aerosols, and rotational and orbital dynamics of Mars. Scientists were assembled into 7 Science Operations Groups that were responsible for requesting measurements by the 3 instruments, rover and engineering subsystems for carrying out their scientific investigations and for analyzing the data and reporting on their findings. The spacecraft was launched on December 4, 1996 and had a 7 month cruise to Mars, with four trajectory correction maneuvers. The vehicle entered the atmosphere directly following cruise stage separation. Parachute deployment, heatshield and lander separation, radar ground acquisition, airbag inflation and rocket ignition all occurred before landing at 2:58 AM true local solar time (9:56:55 AM PDT). The lander bounced at least 15 times up to 12 in high without airbag rupture, demonstrating the robustness of this landing system. Reconstruction of the final landing sequence indicates that the parachute/backshel1/1ander was tilted due to a northwest directed wind and wind shear, which resulted in the lander bouncing about I km to the northwest and initially downhill about 20 m from where the solid rockets fired. Two anomalously bright spots located in the lander scene are likely the heatshield, which continued in a ballistic trajectory about 2 km downrange (west southwest), and the backshell/parachute, which stayed nearer to where the rockets fired. Unconnected disturbed soil patches in the scene indicate that the final few bounces of the lander were from the east-southeast and were followed by a gentle roll to the west before coming to rest on the base petal. The location of the lander away from where the solid rockets fired and considerations of the exhaust products used to inflate the airbags and their fate, indicate that the Pathfinder landing system is one of the cleanest designed leaving the local area essentially contaminant free. The radio signal from the low-=gain antenna was received at 11:34 AM PDT indicating a successful landing.

Golombek, M. P.↗
NASA NTRS1997

Mars Pathfinder Rover-Lewis Research Center Technology Experiments Program

An overview of NASA's Mars Pathfinder Program is given and the development and role of three technology experiments from NASA's Lewis Research Center and carried on the Mars Pathfinder rover is described. Two recent missions to Mars were developed and managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and launched late last year: Mars Global Surveyor in November 1996 and Mars Pathfinder in December 1996. Mars Global Surveyor is an orbiter which will survey the planet with a number of different instruments, and will arrive in September 1997, and Mars Pathfinder which consists of a lander and a small rover, landing on Mars July 4, 1997. These are the first two missions of the Mars Exploration Program consisting of a ten year series of small robotic martian probes to be launched every 26 months. The Pathfinder rover will perform a number of technology and operational experiments which will provide the engineering information necessary to design and operate more complex, scientifically oriented surface missions involving roving vehicles and other machinery operating in the martian environment. Because of its expertise in space power systems and technologies, space mechanisms and tribology, Lewis Research Center was asked by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, which is heading the Mars Pathfinder Program, to contribute three experiments concerning the effects of the martian environment on surface solar power systems and the abrasive qualities of the Mars surface material. In addition, rover static charging was investigated and a static discharge system of several fine Tungsten points was developed and fixed to the rover. These experiments and current findings are described herein.

Stevenson, Steven M.↗
NASA NTRS2004

Lunar and Planetary Science XXXV: Mars: Surface Coatings, Mineralogy, and Surface Properties

The session "Mars: Surface Coatings, Mineralogy, and Surface Properties" contained the following reports:High-Silica Rock Coatings: TES Surface-Type 2 and Chemical Weathering on Mars; Old Desert Varnish-like Coatings and Young Breccias at the Mars Pathfinder Landing Site; Analyses of IR-Stealthy and Coated Surface Materials: A Comparison of LIBS and Reflectance Spectra and Their Application to Mars Surface Exploration; Contrasting Interpretations of TES Spectra of the 2003 Rover:Opportunity-Landing Site: Hematite Coatings and Gray Hematite; A New Hematite Formation Mechanism for Mars; Geomorphic and Diagenetic Analogs to Hematite Regions on Mars: Examples from Jurassic Sandstones of Southern Utah, USA; The Geologic Record of Early Mars: A Layered, Cratered, and "Valley-"ed: Volume; A Simple Approach to Estimating Surface Emissivity with THEMIS; A Large Scale Topographic Correction for THEMIS Data; Thermophysical Properties of Meridiani Planum, Mars; Thermophysical and Spectral Properties of Gusev, the MER-Spirit Landing Site on Mars; Determining Water Content of Geologic Materials Using Reflectance Spectroscopy; and Global Mapping of Martian Bound Water at 6.1 Microns Based on TES Data: Seasonal Hydration.

Source record↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

The Chemistry and Mineralogy of Mars Soils: A Tour of Landed Mission Results from the Last 45 years

Eight landed missions demonstrated that martian soils (defined as loose, unconsolidated surface material) consist of basaltic mineralogy, iron (hydr)oxides, amorphous material, sulfate, chloride, (per)chlorate, nitrate, carbonate, and possible organic C. The Viking Lander 1 and 2 (1976), Mars Pathfinder (1997), and Mars Exploration Rover (MER-A,B) (2004) missions determined that martian soil was similar at all landing sites by having mafic chemistry, high S (~ 7 wt.% SO3) and Cl (0.7 wt.%), and spectral detections of poorly crystalline and crystalline Fe-(hydr)oxide phases. The MER Mössbauer spectrometers detected Fe-bearing olivine and pyroxene along with magnetite, nano-phase Fe-oxides (npOx), hematite, and ferric sulfate. The 2008 Phoenix Lander instrumentation measured a soil pH of 7.7 and detected ~0.6 wt.% perchlorate, 3-5 wt.% Ca-rich carbonate and carbon (500 gC/g) consistent with oxidized organics and Fe-rich carbonate. The 2012 Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) rover (Gale Crater) through X-ray diffraction detected plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene, magnetite, hematite, anhydrite, and quartz, with the balance being composed of Si/Fe-containing amorphous (30 to 40 wt.%) material. MSL evolved gas analysis detected (per)chlorate (0.4 wt.% ClO4), nitrate (0.23 wt.%), along with minor Fe/Mg sulfate and oxidized organic C (~2000 gC/g). Limited pedogenesis may have occurred at the 2018 InSight landing site and in one Gusev Crater soil (MER-B) which have 3 to 10 cm-thick duricrust horizons consistent with atmospheric water vapor interactions with soil salts. Martian soil primary mineralogy was derived mostly from local rock (volcanic, sedimentary) that is largely basaltic planet wide. Secondary minerals [e.g., sulfate, chloride, perchlorate, nitrate, carbonate, Fe-(hydr)oxides] in martian soils formed from oxidative aqueous alteration processes and were likely derived from a combination of local sedimentary rock sources and the global bright dust. The Mars 2020 mission will collect soil for Earth return to enable a thorough assessment of the nature and origin of martian soil.

Mars↗
NASA NTRS2015

Pathfinder Lander Rover Recharge System, and MARCO POLO Controls and ACME Regolith Feed System Controls and Integration

This project stems from the Exploration, Research, and Technology Directorate (UB) Projects Division, and one of their main initiatives is the "Journey to Mars". Landing on the surface of Mars which is millions of miles away is an incredibly large challenge. The terrain is covered in boulders, deep canyons, volcanic mountains, and spotted with sand dunes. The robotic lander is a kind of spacecraft with multiple purposes. One purpose is to be the protective shell for the Martian rover and absorb the impact from the landing forces; another purpose is to be a place where the rovers can come back to, actively communicate with, and recharge their batteries from. Rovers have been instrumental to the Journey to Mars initiative. They have been performing key research on the terrain of the red planet, trying to unlock the mysteries of the land for over a decade. The rovers that will need charging will not all have the same kind of internal battery either. RASSOR batteries may differ from the PbAC batteries inside Red Rover's chassis. NASA has invested heavily in the exploration of the surface of Mars. A driving force behind further exploration is the need for a more efficient operation of Martian rovers. One way is to reduce the weight as much as possible to reduce power consumption given the same mission parameters. In order to reduce the mass of the rovers, power generation, communication, and sample analysis systems currently onboard Martian rovers can be moved to a stationary lander deck. Positioning these systems from the rover to the Lander deck allows a taskforce of smaller, lighter rovers to perform the same tasks currently performed by or planned for larger rovers. A major task in transferring these systems to a stationary lander deck is ensuring that power can be transferred to the rovers.

Internship↗
NASA NTRS1996

The Pathfinder Microrover

An exciting scientific component of the Pathfinder mission is the rover, which will act as a mini-field geologist by providing us with access to samples for chemical analyses and close-up images of the Martian surface, performing active experiments to modify the surface and study the results, and exploring the landing site area.

Mars Mars Pathfinder rover microrover imager for p↗
NASA NTRS2002

Cars on Mars

Mars is one of the most fascinating planets in the solar system, featuring an atmosphere, water, and enormous volcanoes and canyons. The Mars Pathfinder, Global Surveyor, and Odyssey missions mark the first wave of the Planet Earth's coming invasion of the red planet, changing our views of the past and future of the planet and the possibilities of life. Scientist and science-fiction writer Geoffrey A. Landis will present experiences on the Pathfinder mission, the challenges of using solar power on the surface of Mars, and present future missions to Mars such as the upcoming Mars Twin Rovers, which will launch two highly-capable vehicles in 2003 to explore the surface of Mars.

Landis, Geoffrey A.↗
NASA NTRS2010

Mars Science Laboratory Entry, Descent, and Landing System Overview

In 2012, the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission will pioneer the next generation of robotic Entry, Descent, and Landing (EDL) systems by delivering the largest and most capable rover to date to the surface of Mars. In addition to landing more mass than prior missions to Mars, MSL will offer access to regions of Mars that have been previously unreachable. The MSL EDL sequence is a result of a more stringent requirement set than any of its predecessors. Notable among these requirements is landing a 900 kg rover in a landing ellipse much smaller than that of any previous Mars lander. In meeting these requirements, MSL is extending the limits of the EDL technologies qualified by the Mars Viking, Mars Pathfinder, and Mars Exploration Rover missions. Thus, there are many design challenges that must be solved for the mission to be successful. Several pieces of the EDL design are technological firsts, such as guided entry and precision landing on another planet, as well as the entire Sky Crane maneuver. This paper discusses the MSL EDL architecture and discusses some of the challenges faced in delivering an unprecedented rover payload to the surface of Mars.

Mars Science Laboratory (MSL)↗
NASA NTRS2005

Development, Integration and Utilization of Surface Nuclear Energy Sources for Exploration Missions

Throughout the past five decades numerous studies have identified nuclear energy as an enhancing or enabling technology for human surface exploration missions. Nuclear energy sources were used to provide electricity on Apollo missions 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17, and on the Mars Viking landers. Nuclear energy sources were used to provide heat on the Pathfinder; Spirit, and Discovery rovers. Scenarios have been proposed that utilize -1 kWe radioisotope systems for early missions, followed by fission systems in the 10 - 30 kWe range when energy requirements increase. A fission energy source unit size of approximately 150 kWt has been proposed based on previous lunar and Mars base architecture studies. Such a unit could support both early and advanced bases through a building block approach.

Houts, Michael G.↗
NASA NTRS2000

Field Experiments with Planetary Surface Rovers: Lessons for Mars Mission Architecture

Over the last decade, a variety of field experiments have been performed that simulate operations of a rover on Mars. These, in combination with the Pathfinder experience, lead to a realistic assessment of rover mission capabilities and to recommendations for rover technology and mission architecture to improve the science return of Mars exploration. A table summarizes field experiments that represent a range of possible mission designs and operational strategies. The experiments varied by the type and quality of imaging systems and other instrumentation, the use of orbital and aerial imaging and spectroscopy, the communcation bandwidth and command strategy, and the distance traveled. All mission simulations were blind field tests operated by science teams whose interpretations were compared to field ground truth providing an assessment of the accuracy of remote science interpretations and a better understanding of where improvements are needed.

Stoker, Carol↗
NASA NTRS2007

Overview of the Mars Science Laboratory Parachute Decelerator Subsystem

In 2010 the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission will deliver NASA's largest and most capable rover to the surface of Mars. MSL will explore previously unattainable landing sites due to the implementation of a high precision Entry, Descent, and Landing (EDL) system. The parachute decelerator subsystem (PDS) is an integral prat of the EDL system, providing a mass and volume efficient some of aerodynamic drag to decelerate the entry vehicle from Mach 2 to subsonic speeds prior to final propulsive descent to the sutface. The PDS for MSL is a mortar deployed 19.7m Viking type Disk-Gap-Band (DGB) parachute; chosen to meet the EDL timeline requirements and to utilize the heritage parachute systems from Viking, Mars Pathfinder, Mars Exploration Rover, and Phoenix NASA Mars Lander Programs. The preliminary design of the parachute soft goods including materials selection, stress analysis, fabrication approach, and development testing will be discussed. The preliminary design of mortar deployment system including mortar system sizing and performance predictions, gas generator design, and development mortar testing will also be presented.

Entry, Descent, and Landing (EDL)↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

A Survey of Autonomous Navigation Techniques Applicable to Lunar Surface Exploration

As humanity returns to the Moon, and more and more attention is being paid to lunar surface operations, there is a greater need than ever for methods of surface navigation. These could be methods of computer-assisted orienteering for astronauts exploring on foot during an Extra-Vehicular Activity (EVA), or methods of solving the Lost-on-the-Moon problem to initialize a crewed or autonomous rover’s state estimate. It may also be necessary to process navigation data associated with surface samples or other surface operations a posteriori to better understand where that analysis occurred. Autonomous rover operation will also require Hazard Detection and Avoidance (HDA) and terrain-aware pathfinding. While navigation on the surface of the Moon will likely rely on Earth-based assets such as the Deep Space Network (DSN) or communication with other spacecraft (e.g., LunaNet, LCRNS, pre-deployed moon beacons, a nearby lander) it may be necessary to navigate in a loss-of-communication scenario. This paper analyzes the methods of surface navigation used on other celestial bodies, such as those used during the Apollo missions and autonomous exploration of Mars, as well as novel methods which have been studied but not yet implemented which may prove useful. It is shown that the navigator has myriad options when processing data from an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU), a star tracker, (rover) wheel encoders, optical cameras, and LIght Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) sensors. The intention of this paper is to provide a broad overview of what has been done and what could be done, to aid those designing vehicles and/or missions to the lunar surface.

Paul D Mckee↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

A Survey of Autonomous Navigation Techniques Applicable to Lunar Surface Exploration

As humanity returns to the Moon, and more and more attention is being paid to lunar surface operations, there is a greater need than ever for methods of surface navigation. These could be methods of computer-assisted orienteering for astronauts exploring on foot during an Extra-Vehicular Activity (EVA), or methods of solving the Lost-on-the-Moon problem to initialize a crewed or autonomous rover’s state estimate. It may also be necessary to process navigation data associated with surface samples or other surface operations a posteriori to better understand where that analysis occurred. Autonomous rover operation will also require Hazard Detection and Avoidance (HDA) and terrain-aware pathfinding. While navigation on the surface of the Moon will likely rely on Earth-based assets such as the Deep Space Network (DSN) or communication with other spacecraft (e.g., LunaNet, LCRNS, pre-deployed moon beacons, a nearby lander) it may be necessary to navigate in a loss-of-communication scenario. This paper analyzes the methods of surface navigation used on other celestial bodies, such as those used during the Apollo missions and autonomous exploration of Mars, as well as novel methods which have been studied but not yet implemented which may prove useful. It is shown that the navigator has myriad options when processing data from an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU), a star tracker, (rover) wheel encoders, optical cameras, and LIght Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) sensors. The intention of this paper is to provide a broad overview of what has been done and what could be done, to aid those designing vehicles and/or missions to the lunar surface.

Paul McKee↗
NASA NTRS2004

Using RSVP for analyzing state and previous activities for the Mars Exploration Rovers

Current developments in immersive environments for mission planning include several tools which make up a system for performing and rehearsing missions. This system, known as the Rover Sequencing and Visualization Program (RSVP), includes tools for planning long range sorties for highly autonomous rovers, tools for planning operations with robotic arms, and advanced tools for visualizing telemetry from remote spacecraft and landers. One of the keys to successful planning of rover activities is knowing what the rover has accomplished to date and understanding the current rover state. RSVP builds on the lessons learned and the heritage of the Mars Pathfinder mission This paper will discuss the tools and methodologies present in the RSVP suite for examining rover state, reviewing previous activities, visually comparing telemetered results to rehearsed results, and reviewing science and engineering imagery. In addition we will present how this tool suite was used on the Mars Exploration Rovers (MER) project to explore the surface of Mars.

Mars Exploration Rover (MER)↗
NASA NTRS2000

Rovers as Geological Helpers for Planetary Surface Exploration

Rovers can be used to perform field science on other planetary surfaces and in hostile and dangerous environments on Earth. Rovers are mobility systems for carrying instrumentation to investigate targets of interest and can perform geologic exploration on a distant planet (e.g. Mars) autonomously with periodic command from Earth. For nearby sites (such as the Moon or sites on Earth) rovers can be teleoperated with excellent capabilities. In future human exploration, robotic rovers will assist human explorers as scouts, tool and instrument carriers, and a traverse "buddy". Rovers can be wheeled vehicles, like the Mars Pathfinder Sojourner, or can walk on legs, like the Dante vehicle that was deployed into a volcanic caldera on Mt. Spurr, Alaska. Wheeled rovers can generally traverse slopes as high as 35 degrees, can avoid hazards too big to roll over, and can carry a wide range of instrumentation. More challenging terrain and steeper slopes can be negotiated by walkers. Limitations on rover performance result primarily from the bandwidth and frequency with which data are transmitted, and the accuracy with which the rover can navigate to a new position. Based on communication strategies, power availability, and navigation approach planned or demonstrated for Mars missions to date, rovers on Mars will probably traverse only a few meters per day. Collecting samples, especially if it involves accurate instrument placement, will be a slow process. Using live teleoperation (such as operating a rover on the Moon from Earth) rovers have traversed more than 1 km in an 8 hour period while also performing science operations, and can be moved much faster when the goal is simply to make the distance. I will review the results of field experiments with planetary surface rovers, concentrating on their successful and problematic performance aspects. This paper will be accompanied by a working demonstration of a prototype planetary surface rover.

Stoker, Carol↗
NASA NTRS2003

Flight Reconstruction of the Mars Pathfinder Disk-Gap-Band Parachute Drag Coefficient

On July 4, 1997, the Mars Pathfinder (MPF) mission successfully landed on Mars. The entry, descent, and landing (EDL) scenario employed the use of a Disk-Gap-Band parachute design to decelerate the Lander. Flight reconstruction of the entry using MPF flight accelerometer data revealed that the MPF parachute decelerated faster than predicted. In the summer of 2003, the Mars Exploration Rover (MER) mission will send two Landers to the surface of Mars arriving in January 2004. The MER mission utilizes a similar EDL scenario and parachute design as that employed by MPF. As a result, characterizing the degree of underperformance of the MPF parachute system is critical for the MER EDL trajectory design. This paper provides an overview of the methodology utilized to estimate the MPF parachute drag coefficient as experienced on Mars.

Desai, Prasun↗
NASA NTRS2004

The Mars Exploration Rover Project

The twin rovers of the Mars Exploration Rover Project successfully landed on the surface of Mars in January 2004, and initiated a highly successful science and exploration campaign. This marked the culmination of an unprecedented four-year effort to design, build, launch, and operate two of the most complex planetary spacecraft ever built. The project was started in the aftermath of the 1999 Mars mission failures, and was commissioned to take advantage of the highly advantageous 2003 opportunity. The development schedule from project start to launch was only 35 months, so schedule management was the most significant challenge facing the project. This problem was compounded when early assumptions about the extent of design heritage from Mars Pathfinder proved to be flawed. The project derived a number of useful lessons learned in solving these challenges that can be applied to future missions.

Mars↗
NASA NTRS2004

Lithium-sulfur dioxide batteries on Mars rovers

NASA's 2003 Mars Exploration Rover (MER) missions, Spirit and Opportunity, have been performing exciting surface exploration studies for the past six months. These two robotic missions were aimed at examining the presence of water and, thus, any evidence of life, and at understanding the geological conditions of Mars, These rovers have been successfully assisted by primary lithium-sulfur dioxide batteries during the critical entry, descent, and landing (EDL) maneuvers. These batteries were located on the petals of the lander, which, unlike in the Mars Pathfinder mission, was designed only to carry the rover. The selection of the lithium-sulfur dioxide battery system for this application was based on its high specific energy and high rate discharge capability, combined with low heat evolution, as dictated by this application. Lithium-sulfur dioxide batteries exhibit voltage delay, which tends to increase at low discharge temperatures, especially after extended storage at warm temperatures, In the absence of a depassivation circuit, as provided on earlier missions, e.g., Galileo, we were required to depassivate the lander primary batteries in a unique manner. The batteries were brought onto a shunt-regulated bus set at pre-selected discharge voltages, thus affecting depassivation during constant discharge voltages. Several ground tests were preformed, on cells, cell strings and battery assembly with five parallel strings, to identify optimum shunt voltages and durations of depassivation. We also examined the repassivation of lithium anodes, subsequent to depassivation. In this paper, we will describe these studies, in detail, as well as the depassivation of the lander flight batteries on both Spirit and Opportunity rover prior to the EDL sequence and their performance during landing on Mars.

Lithium-SO2 batteries↗