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By using Bi-gram and Tri-gram tables, a pattern can be formed to determine failure modes and mechanisms. Computer programs provide accurate predictions of cell failure several thousand cycles before actual failure.
A research program to develop and evaluate electrodes for a nongassing negative limited nickel-cadmium cell is described. The concept of the negative limited cell and its implications on electrode structure are discussed. The key element is the development of a cadmium electrode with high hydrogen overvoltage. For this, Teflon-bonded Cd electrodes and silver-sinter based Gc electrodes were manufactured and in preliminary experiments their physical and electrochemical characteristics were evaluated. Hydrogen evolution on cadmium was found to occur approximately 100 mV more cathodic than on silver. Both electrode structures exhibit a fairly sharp potential rise at the end of the charging cycle and the advent of gas evolution occurs at potentials between -1.2 and -1.3 V versus a Hg/HgO reference electrode. These results are compared with conventional Ni-sinter based Cd electrodes.
Electrodes for a nongassing negative limited nickel-cadmium cell are discussed. The key element is the development of cadmium electrodes with high hydrogen overvoltage. For this, the following electrode structures were manufactured and their physical and electrochemical characteristics were evaluated: (1) silver-sinter-based Cd electrodes, (2) Teflon-bonded Cd electrodes, (3) electrodeposited Cd sponge, and (4) Cd-sinter structures.
Method of constructing nickel cadmium batteries prevents excessive gas buildup and allows hermetic sealing of battery for increased service life and reduced maintenance cost.
Cells use potassium hydroxide electrolyte and are hermetically sealed in stainless steel casings. Each cell provides 1.56 volts and has a minimum operating life of 17,000 hours and a maximum of approximately 48,000 hours.
Synchronous orbit and elliptical orbit life tests are used to make improvements in cell design for spacecraft application. The test increased the electrolyte volume and the surface area in cells to reduce the current density on charge and discharge.
Pressure response to reverse current, pressure decay after reversal, and discharge performance of nickel cadmium cells are presented.
AC impedance techniques are discussed for a non-destruct analysis of nickel cadmium batteries. A technique for determining battery cycle life is the ultimate goal.
Models are developed and discussed as a technique for evaluating the discharge characteristics of the nickel cadmium battery. Results are compared with available experimental data.
The failure of a nickel cadmium battery undergoing tests is discussed. Reasons for the complete destruction of the battery while undergoing preparation for thermal vacuum testing are given.
Cycle life analysis of the nickel cadmium battery is given. The life prediction equation is limited to spacecraft in low Earth orbits.
Cells operating at five degrees Celsius or less, and going to 60 to 65 percent depth of discharge, were studied as to whether they could achieve a useful working life of 7.5 years in a GPS orbit. The characteristics of various orbits were compared and it is noted that the GPS orbit experiences only 220 cycles a year and must be treated as a geosynchronous rather than a low Earth orbit. Cell degradation is considered to be the result of both trickle-charge degradation and degradation due to cycling. Time-to-failure values are presented for selected temperatures and depth of discharges.
An accelerated battery test with 15 periods of cell reversals during reconditioning was performed. The nature and extent of hydrogen generation was examined, and the effects of reversals on battery performance were determined.
Corrosion in the terminals of nickel cadmium cells was investigated. Corrosion, crevice type corrosion, at the interface between the stainless steel material, the nickel material, and the braze was examined. It was concluded that in the welded areas there was no problem. There was corrosion of the crevice type in the brazed areas and some pitting was evident between the braze and the base material.
RCA Astro-Electronics will be characterizing and life-testing two groups of hermetically-sealed aerospace nickel-cadmium cells to determine the effect, if any, of a separator change on cell performance. This test, designed to provide information for a specific low-Earth-orbit satellite application, will also add to the overall data-base for cells with the new separator.
A review was made of failures and irregularities experienced on nickel cadmium batteries for 31 spacecraft. Only rarely did batteries fail completely. In many cases, poorly performing batteries were compensated for by a reduction in loads or by continuing to operate in spite of out-of-voltage conditions. Low discharge voltage was the most common problem observed in flight spacecraft (42%). Spacecraft batteries are often designed to protect against cell shorts, but cell shorts accounted for only 16% of the failures. Other causes of problems were high charge voltage (16%), battery problems caused by other elements of the spacecraft (10%), and open circuit failures (6%). Problems of miscellaneous or unknown causes occurred in 10% of the cases.
The charge efficiency of nickel-cadmium and nickel-hydrogen battery cells is critical in spacecraft applications for determining the amount of time required for a battery to reach a full state of charge. As the nickel-cadmium or nickel-hydrogen batteries approach about 90 percent state of charge, the charge efficiency begins to drop towards zero, making estimation of the total amount of stored charge uncertain. Charge efficiency estimates are typically based on prior history of available capacity following standardized conditions for charge and discharge. These methods work well as long as performance does not change significantly. A relatively simple method for determining charge efficiencies during real time operation for these battery cells would be a tremendous advantage. Such a method was explored and appears to be quite well suited for application to nickel-cadmium and nickel-hydrogen battery cells. The charge efficiency is monitored in real time, using only voltage measurements as inputs. With further evaluation such a method may provide a means to better manage charge control of batteries, particularly in systems where a high degree of autonomy or system intelligence is required.
The following topics are covered in viewgraph format: electrochemically deposited electrodes; electrode development and production; electrochemical characterization and electrode stress tests; sintering process; cell design and assembly; and separator qualification program.