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NASA NTRS1996

STS-77 Space Shuttle Mission Report

The STS-77 Space Shuttle Program Mission Report summarizes the Payload activities as well as the: Orbiter, External Tank (ET), Solid Rocket Booster (SRB), Reusable Solid Rocket Motor (RSRM), and the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) systems performance during the seventy-seventh flight of the Space Shuttle Program, the fifty-second flight since the return-to-flight, and the eleventh flight of the Orbiter Endeavour (OV-105). STS-77 was also the last flight of OV-105 prior to the vehicle being placed in the Orbiter Maintenance Down Period (OMDP). In addition to the Orbiter, the flight vehicle consisted of an ET that was designated ET-78; three SSME's that were designated as serial numbers 2037, 2040, and 2038 in positions 1, 2, and 3, respectively; and two SRB's that were designated BI-080. The RSRM's, designated RSRM-47, were installed in each SRB and the individual RSRM's were designated as 360TO47A for the left SRB, and 360TO47B for the right SRB. The STS-77 Space Shuttle Program Mission Report fulfills the Space Shuttle Program requirement as documented in NSTS 07700, Volume VII, Appendix E. The requirement stated in that document is that each organizational element supporting the Program will report the results of their hardware (and software) evaluation and mission performance plus identify all related in-flight anomalies. The primary objectives of this flight were to successfully perform the operations necessary to fulfill the requirements of Spacehab-4, the SPARTAN 207/inflatable Antenna Experiment (IAE), and the Technology Experiments Advancing Missions in Space (TEAMS) payload. Secondary objectives of this flight were to perform the experiments of the Aquatic Research Facility (ARF), Brilliant Eyes Ten-Kelvin Sorption Cryocooler Experiment (BETSCE), Biological Research in Canisters (BRIC), Get-Away-Special (GAS), and GAS Bridge Assembly (GBA). The STS-77 mission was planned as a 9-day flight plus 1 day, plus 2 contingency days, which were available for weather avoidance or Orbiter contingency operations. The sequence of events for the STS-77 mission is shown in Table 1, and the Space Shuttle Vehicle Management Office Problem Tracking List is shown in Table 11. The Government Fumished Equipment/Flight Crew Equipment (GFE/FCE) Problem Tracking List is shown in Table II. Appendix A lists the sources of data, both formal and informal, that were used to prepare this report. Appendix B provides the definition of acronyms and abbreviations used throughout the report. All times during the flight are given in Greenwich mean time (G.m.t.) and mission elapsed time (MET). The six-person crew for STS-77 consisted of John H. Casper, Col., U. S. Air Force, Commander; Curtis L. Brown, Jr., Lt. Col., U. S. Air Force, Pilot; Andrew S. W. Thomas, Civilian, Ph.D., Mission Specialist 1; Daniel W. Bursch, CDR., U. S. Navy, Mission Specialist 2; Mario Runco, Jr., Civilian, Mission Specialist 3; and Marc Gameau, Civilian, PhD, Mission Specialist 4.

Fricke, Robert W., Jr.↗

NASA NTRS1996

STS-78 Space Shuttle Mission Report

The STS-78 Space Shuttle Program Mission Report summarizes the Payload activities as well as the Orbiter, External Tank (ET), Solid Rocket Booster (SRB), Reusable Solid Rocket Motor (RSRM), and the Space Shuttle main engine (SSME) systems performance during the seventy-eighth flight of the Space Shuttle Program, the fifty-third flight since the return-to-flight, and the twentieth flight of the Orbiter Columbia (OV-102). In addition to the Orbiter, the flight vehicle consisted of an ET that was designated ET-79; three SSME's that were designated as serial numbers 2041, 2039, and 2036 in positions 1, 2, and 3, respectively; and two SRB's that were designated BI-081. The RSRM's, designated RSRM-55, were installed in each SRB and the individual RSRM's were designated as 360L055A for the left SRB, and 360L055B for the right SRB. The STS-78 Space Shuttle Program Mission Report fulfills the Space Shuttle Program requirement as documented in NSTS 07700, Volume 7, Appendix E. The requirement stated in that document is that each organizational element supporting the Program will report the results of their hardware (and software) evaluation and mission performance plus identify all related in-flight anomalies. The primary objective of this flight was to successfully perform the planned operations of the Life and Microgravity Spacelab experiments. The secondary objectives of this flight were to complete the operations of the Orbital Acceleration Research Experiment (OARE), Biological Research in Canister Unit-Block II (BRIC), and the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment II-Configuration C (SAREX-II). The STS-78 mission was planned as a 16-day, plus one day flight plus two contingency days, which were available for weather avoidance or Orbiter contingency operations. The sequence of events for the STS-78 mission is shown in Table 1, and the Space Shuttle Vehicle Management Office Problem Tracking List is shown in Table 2. The Government Furnished Equipment/Flight Crew Equipment (GFE/FCE) Problem Tracking List is shown in Table 3. The Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Problem Tracking List is shown in Table 4. Appendix A lists the sources of data, both formal and informal, that were used to prepare this report. Appendix B provides the definition of acronyms and abbreviations used throughout the report. All times during the flight are given in Greenwich mean time (G.m.t.) and mission elapsed time (MET).

Fricke, Robert W., Jr.↗

NASA NTRS1999

STS-93 Flight Day 3 Highlights and Crew Activities

Commander Eileen Collins, Pilot Jeff Ashby, and Mission Specialists Cady Coleman, Steve Hawley and Michael Tognini were awakened with the song "Brave New Girls" performed by Teresa. Steve Hawley, the resident astronomer, continued to work with the Southwest Ultraviolet Imaging System (SWUIS) and collected images of targets associated with Mercury, Venus, Jupiter and the Moon. Collins and Ashby maneuvered Columbia in support of various experiments including observations made with the SWUIS telescope or the Midcourse Space Experiment (MSX), which used sophisticated sensors to collect ultraviolet, infrared, and visible light data of firings of the shuttle's orbital maneuvering system engines or primary reaction control system jets. Collins also conducted a conversation with students at the Harbor View Elementary School in Corona Del Mar, California using the Shuttle Amatuer Radio Experiment (SAREX) system. She also checked experiments associated with the Cell Culture Module (CCM) and the Biological Research in Canister (BRIC) payloads.

Source record↗

NASA NTRS1999

STS-93 Post Flight Presentation

An overview of Flight STS-93 is presented. The primary objective of the STS-93 mission was to deploy the Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF), also known as the Chandra X-ray Observatory. The mission flew on the Columbia Shuttle, on July 22, 1999. This facility is the most sophisticated X-ray observatory ever built. Other payloads on STS-93 were: (1) the Midcourse Space Experiment (MSX), (2) Shuttle Ionospheric Modification with Pulsed Local Exhaust (SIMPLEX), (3) Southwest Ultraviolet Imaging System (SWUIS), (4) Gelation of Sols: Applied Microgravity Research (GOSAMR), Space Tissue Loss-B (STL-B), (5) Light Weight Flexible Solar Array Hinge (LFSAH), (6) Cell Culture Module (CCM), and (7) the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment-II (SAREX-II), (8) EarthKam, (9) Plant Growth Investigations in Microgravity (PGIM), (10) Commercial Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus (CGBA), (11) Micro-Electrical Mechanical System (MEMS), and (12) the Biological Research in Canisters (BRIC). The crew was: Eileen M. Collins, Mission Commander, the first female shuttle commander; Jeffrey S. Ashby, Pilot; Steven A. Hawley , Mission Specialist; Catherine G. Coleman, Mission Specialist; Michel Tognini (CNES), Mission Specialist. The video contains views of life aboard the space shuttle. This mission featured both a night launching and a night landing at the Kennedy Space Center.

Source record↗

NASA NTRS2003

Early development of fern gametophytes in microgravity

Dormant spores of the fern Ceratopteris richardii were flown on Shuttle mission STS-93 to evaluate the effects of micro-g on their development and on their pattern of gene expression. Prior to flight the spores were sterilized and sown into one of two environments: (1) Microscope slides in a video-microscopy module; and (2) Petri dishes. All spores were then stored in darkness until use. Spore germination was initiated on orbit after exposure to light. For the spores on microscope slides, cell level changes were recorded through the clear spore coat of the spores by video microscopy. After their exposure to light, spores in petri dishes were frozen in orbit at four different time points during which on earth gravity fixes the polarity of their development. Spores were then stored frozen in Biological Research in Canister units until recovery on earth. The RNAs from these cells and from 1-g control cells were extracted and analyzed on earth after flight to assay changes in gene expression. Video microscopy results revealed that the germinated spores developed normally in microgravity, although the polarity of their development, which is guided by gravity on earth, was random in space. Differential Display-PCR analyses of RNA extracted from space-flown cells showed that there was about a 5% change in the pattern of gene expression between cells developing in micro-g compared to those developing on earth. c2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd on behalf of COSPAR.

manned↗

NASA NTRS2004

STS-107 Mission after the Mission: Recovery of Data from the Debris of Columbia

STS-107 was a 16-day, dedicated research mission that included over 80 experiments, spanning many disciplines including biology, physics, chemistry, and earth sciences, including many student experiments. The mission was considered a resounding success until February 1, 2003, when tragedy struck the Columbia and her crew as she re-entered the atmosphere over Texas. During the mission, approximately one third of the overall data was obtained but much more was stored in the flight hardware systems. This paper documents a new set of STS-107 experiment objectives, a "mission after the mission," in which several experiment teams attempted, and, in many cases succeeded, to recover data from their flight hardware, now debris. A description of the data recovery efforts is included for these five experiment facilities: Combustion Module-2, Critical Viscosity of Xenon-2, Commercial Instrumentation Technology Associates Biomedical Experiments-2, Biological Research in Canisters-14, and Commercial Protein Crystal Growth.

Over, A. P.↗

NASA NTRS1996

Clinorotation affects morphology and ethylene production in soybean seedlings

The microgravity environment of spaceflight influences growth, morphology and metabolism in etiolated germinating soybean. To determine if clinorotation will similarly impact these processes, we conducted ground-based studies in conjunction with two space experiment opportunities. Soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.) seeds were planted within BRIC (Biological Research In Canister) canisters and grown for seven days at 20 degrees C under clinorotation (1 rpm) conditions or in a stationary upright mode. Gas samples were taken daily and plants were harvested after seven days for measurement of growth and morphology. Compared to the stationary upright controls, plants exposed to clinorotation exhibited increased root length (125% greater) and fresh weight (42% greater), whereas shoot length and fresh weight decreased by 33% and 16% respectively. Plants grown under clinorotation produced twice as much ethylene as the stationary controls. Seedlings treated with triiodo benzoic acid (TIBA), an auxin transport inhibitor, under clinorotation produced 50% less ethylene than the untreated control subjected to the same gravity treatment, whereas a treatment with 2,4-D increased ethylene by five-fold in the clinorotated plants. These data suggest that slow clinorotation influences biomass partitioning and ethylene production in etiolated soybean plants.

NASA Discipline Life Support Systems↗

NASA NTRS2011

Effect of Microgravity on Early Events of Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Medicago Truncatula: Initial Results from the SyNRGE Experiment

SyNRGE (Symbiotic Nodulation in a Reduced Gravity Environment) was a sortie mission on STS-135 in the Biological Research in Canisters (BRIC) hardware to study the effect of microgravity on a plant-microbe symbiosis resulting in biological nitrogen fixation. Medicago truncatula, a model species of the legume family, was inoculated with its bacterial symbiont, Sinorhizobium meliloti, to observe early events associated with infection and nodulation in Petri Dish Fixation Units (PDFUs). Two sets of experiments were conducted in orbit and in 24-hour delayed ground controls. Experiment one was designed to determine if S. meliloti infect M. truncatula and initiate physiological changes associated with nodule formation. Roots of five-day-old M. truncatula cultivar Jemalong A17 (Enodll::gus) were inoculated 24 hr before launch with either S. meliloti strain 1021 or strain ABS7 and integrated into BRIC-PDFU hardware placed in a 4 C Cold Bag for launch on Atlantis. Inoculated plants and uninoculated controls were maintained in the dark at ambient temperature in the middeck of STS-135 for 11 days before fixation in RNAlater(tM) by crew activation of the PDFU. Experiment two was designed to determine if microgravity altered the process of bacterial infection and host plant nodule formation. Seeds of two M. truncatula cultivar Jemalong A17 lines, the Enodll::gus used in experiment 1, and SUNN, a super-nodulating mutant of A17, were germinated on orbit for 11 days in the middeck cabin and returned to Earth alive inside of BRIC-PDFU's at 4 C. S. meliloti strains 1021 and ABS7 were cultivated separately in broth culture on orbit and also returned to Earth alive. After landing, flight- and groundgrown plants and bacteria were transferred from BRIC-PDFU's into Nunc(tm) 4-well plates for reciprocity crosses. Rates of plant growth and nodule development on Buffered Nodulation Medium (lacking nitrogen) were measured for 14 days. Preliminary analysis' of Experiment 1 confirms that legumes and bacteria cultivated in space 'initiate the symbiotic interaction leading to nitrogen fixation and that bacteria retain the ability to form nodules on M. truncatula roots. Initial assessment of experiment 2 shows 100% seed germination and excellent bacterial growth in microgravity.

Stutte, Gary W.↗

NASA NTRS2012

Microgravity Effects on the Early Events of Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Medicago Truncatula: Results from the SyNRGE Experiment

Stutte, Gary W.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Oxygen Deficiency in Spaceflight & its Impact on Plants’ Adaptive Changes

The goal of this study was to investigate the effects of hypoxic conditions in spaceflight. The distribution of genes involved with hypoxia in Arabidopsis thaliana and Brassica rapa were analyzed with the results from past spaceflight experiments to evaluate genes for future studies. Transcriptomes data of two different spaceflight studies of Arabidopsis thaliana from the NASA GeneLab database, GLDS-7 and GLDS-17, were compared. DNA microarrays were utilized for transcription profiling to conduct these studies. For GLDS-7, the response in spaceflight was studied with approaches that collected gene expression data. Leaves, hypocotyls, and root tissues were compared to the whole plant. For GLDS-17, seedlings and undifferentiated cultured cells were placed in the Biological Research in Canisters (BRIC), specifically BRIC-16. The genes related to hypoxia in Arabidopsis thaliana from these two studies were compared to genes in Brassica rapa with the TOAST database to evaluate similarities. When transcriptomes were analyzed for GLDS-7 and 17, genes that were considered significant had p-values ≤ 0.05 and log fold change values ≤ -1 or ≥1. Sixteen genes fulfilled the criteria. The genes related to hypoxia were alcohol dehydrogenase, elongation factor, ethylene-responsive factor, GUS, heat-shock proteins, NAP, RAP2.12, and RD20. The genes most impacted by spaceflight were heat-shock proteins. These genes were compared with Brassica rapa through Arabidopsis Ensemble Orthology from the TOAST Database. Similarities were seen in alcohol dehydrogenase, elongation factor, ethylene-responsive factor, heat-shock proteins, NAP, and RAP2.12. Overall, transcription profiling indicates that plants’ survival in spaceflight is dependent on adaptive changes with gene expression. This study also indicates that there are similarities in gene expression between Arabidopsis thaliana and Brassica rapa with comparable gene expression. Future studies could include analyzing additional species to understand which genes could be modified to ensure better yield of space crops amid hypoxic conditions.

hypoxia↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

A Pair of Trans-Golgi Network/Early Endosome-Localized Proteins Facilitate Cytoskeletal-Mediated Root Skewing in Arabidopsis Thaliana

Roots treated with the actin-disrupting compound Latrunculin B (LatB) show stronger gravitropic responses on Earth and dampened straightening responses on a 2-D clinostat. In related experiments using the Biological Research in Canisters (BRIC) hardware, it was found that knockouts to vegetative actin isoforms in Arabidopsis thaliana had more robust root skewing in microgravity and waved more strongly than wild type on hard agar surfaces. These results indicate that the actin cytoskeleton mediates directional root growth in space and on the ground. To gain new insights into the role of actin in directional root growth, we identified mutants that showed differential growth responses to low doses of LatB. In-depth studies of one mutant led to the identification of a trans-Golgi Network (TGN)/Early Endosome (EE)- localized protein that associates with actin. This protein called hypersensitive to LatB 1 (HLB1) colocalized with the ADP-ribosylation-factor guanine nucleotide exchange factor, MIN7/BEN1 (HOPM INTERACTOR7/BREFELDIN A-VISUALIZED ENDOCYTIC TRAFFICKING DEFECTIVE1), at the TGN/EE. HLB1 and MIN7/BEN1 were found to regulate exocytosis and endocytosis, respectively, suggesting that both proteins are involved in actin-mediated membrane traffic. Microtubules, another component of the cytoskeleton, is known to be involved in root skewing. Both hlb1 and min7/ben1 mutants exhibited dampened root skewing on the microtubule stabilizing compound taxol. Taken together, our results support the conclusion that cytoskeletal-membrane interactions contribute to directional root skewing in A. thaliana and is facilitated in part by the TGN/EE-localized HLB1 and MIN7/BEN1 proteins.

Plant Space Biology↗

NASA NTRS1991

Critical technology experiment results for lightweight space heat receiver

Critical technology experiments have been performed on thermal energy storage modules in support of the NASA Advanced Solar Dynamic Brayton Heat Receiver Program. The modules, wedge-shaped canisters containing lithium fluoride (LiF), were designed to minimize the mechanical stresses that occur during the phase change of the LiF. Nickel foam inserts were placed in two of the test canisters to provide thermal conductivity enhancement and to distribute the void volume throughout the canister. A procedure was developed for reducing the nickel oxides on the nickel foam to enhance the wicking ability of the foam. The canisters were filled with LiF and closure-welded at the NASA Lewis Research Center. Two canisters, one with a nickel foam insert, the other without an insert, were thermally cycled in various orientations in a fluidized bed furnace. Computer-aided tomography was successfully used to nondestructively determine void locations in the canisters. Finally, canister dimensional stability was measured after thermal cycling with an inspection fixture.

Schneider, Michael G.↗

NASA NTRS1998

Microbial Cellulose Assembly in Microgravity

Based on evidence indicating a possible correlation between hypo-gravity conditions and alteration of cellulose production by the gram negative bacterium, Acetobacter xylinum, a ground-based study for a possible long term Space Shuttle flight has been conducted. The proposed experiment for A. xylinum aboard the Shuttle is the BRIC (Biological Research in a Canister), a metal container containing spaces for nine Petri plates. Using a common experimental design, the cellulose production capability as well as the survivability of the A. xylinum strains NQ5 and AY201 have been described. It should now be possible to use the BRIC for the first long term microgravity experiments involving the biosynthesis of cellulose.

Brown, R. Malcolm, Jr.↗

NASA NTRS2015

BRIC-21: Global Transcriptome Profiling to Identify Cellular Stress Mechanisms Responsible for Spaceflight-Induced Antibiotic Resistance

Comparisons of spaceflight stress responses in Bacillus subtilis spores and Staphylococcus epidermidis cells to ground-based controls will be conducted to uncover alterations in their antibiotic susceptibility.

Biological Research in Canisters↗

NASA NTRS1998

Effects of Ambient High Temperature Exposure on Alumina-Titania High Emittance Surfaces for Solar Dynamic Systems

Solar dynamic (SD) space power systems require durable, high emittance surfaces on a number of critical components, such as heat receiver interior surfaces and parasitic load radiator (PLR) elements. To enhance surface characteristics, an alumina-titania coating has been applied to 500 heat receiver thermal energy containment canisters and the PLR of NASA Lewis Research Center's (LeRC) 2 kW SD ground test demonstrator (GTD). The alumina-titania coating was chosen because it had been found to maintain its high emittance under vacuum (less than or equal to 10(exp -6) torr) at high temperatures (1457 F (827 C)) for an extended period (approximately 2,700 hours). However, preflight verification of SD systems components, such as the PLR require operation at ambient pressure and high temperatures. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to evaluate the durability of the alumina-titania coating at high temperature in air. Fifteen of sixteen alumina-titania coated Incoloy samples were exposed to high temperatures (600 F (316 C) to l500 F (816 C)) for various durations (2 to 32 hours). Samples, were characterized prior to and after heat treatment for reflectance, solar absorptance, room temperature emittance and emittance at 1,200 F (649 C). Samples were also examined to detect physical defects and to determine surface chemistry using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy operated with an energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) system, and x ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Visual examination of the heat-treated samples showed a whitening of samples exposed to temperatures of 1,000 F (538 C) and above. Correspondingly, the optical properties of these samples had degraded. A sample exposed to 1,500 F (816 C) for 24 hours had whitened and the thermal emittance at 1,200 F (649 C) had decreased from the non-heat treated value of 0.94 to 0.62. The coating on this sample had become embrittled with spalling off the substrate noticeable at several locations. Based on this research it is recommended that preflight testing of SD components with alumina-titania coatings be restricted to temperatures no greater than 600 F (316 C) in air to avoid optical degradation. Moreover, components with the alumina-titania coating are likely to experience optical property degradation with direct atomic oxygen exposure in space.

deGroh, Kim K.↗

NASA NTRS1995

The Photogrammetric Appendage Structural Dynamics Experiment

The Photogrammetric Appendage Structural Dynamics Experiment (PASDE) is a Hitchhiker payload scheduled to fly as part of the International Space Station (ISS) Phase-1 flight program to the Russian Space Station Mir. The objective of the first flight of PASDE on STS-74 is to obtain video images of the Mir Kvant-2 solar array response to various structural dynamic excitation events. This experiment will demonstrate the use of photogrammetric techniques for on-orbit structural dynamics measurements. Photogrammetric measurements will provide a low cost alternative to appendage mounted accelerometers to the ISS program. The PASDE experiment hardware consists of three instruments each containing two video cameras, two video tape recorders, a modified video signal time inserter, and associated avionics boxes. The instruments were designed and built at the NASA Langley Research Center, and are integrated into standard Hitchhiker canisters at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. The Hitchhiker canisters are then installed into the Space Shuttle cargo bay in locations selected to achieve good video coverage and photogrammetric geometry. The measurement resolution of the instruments is expected to be on the order of 0.25 cm (0.1 in.).

Gilbert, Michael G.↗

NASA NTRS2006

Rapid Cycling CO2 and H2O Removal System for EMU

NASA's planned future missions set stringent demands on the design of the Portable Life Support Systems (PLSS), requiring dramatic reductions in weight, decreased reliance on supplies and greater flexibility on the types of missions. Use of regenerable systems that reduce weight and volume of the EMU is of critical importance to NASA, both for low orbit operations and for long duration manned missions. The CO2 and humidity control unit in the existing PLSS design is relatively large, since it has to remove 8 hours worth of CO2. If the sorbent regeneration can be carried out during the extravehicular activity (EVA) with a relatively high regeneration frequency, the size of the sorbent canister and weight can be significantly reduced. TDA Research, Inc. (TDA) is developing a compact, regenerable sorbent-based system to control CO2 and humidity in the space suit ventilation loop. The sorbent can be regenerated using space vacuum during the EVA, eliminating all duration-limiting elements in the life support system. This paper summarizes the results of the sorbent development and testing, and evaluation efforts. The results of a preliminary system analysis are also included, showing the size and volume reductions provided by the new system.

Alptekin, Gokhan↗

NASA NTRS2007

Development of a Rapid Cycling CO2 and H2O Removal Sorbent

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) planned future missions set stringent demands on the design of the Portable Life Support System (PLSS), requiring dramatic reductions in weight, decreased reliance on supplies and greater flexibility on the types of missions. Use of regenerable systems that reduce weight and volume of the Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) is of critical importance to NASA, both for low orbit operations and for long duration manned missions. The carbon dioxide and humidity control unit in the existing PLSS design is relatively large, since it has to remove and store eight hours worth of carbon dioxide (CO2). If the sorbent regeneration can be carried out during the Extravehicular Activity (EVA) with a relatively high regeneration frequency, the size of the sorbent canister and weight can be significantly reduced. TDA Research, Inc. is developing compact, regenerable sorbent materials to control CO2 and humidity in the space suit ventilation loop. The sorbent can be regenerated using space vacuum during the EVA, eliminating all CO2 and humidity duration-limiting elements in the life support system. The material also has applications in other areas of space exploration including long duration exploration missions requiring regenerable technologies and possibly the Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) spacecraft. This paper summarizes the results of the sorbent development, testing, and evaluation efforts to date.

Alptekin, Gokhan↗