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NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Looking into Ocular Risks of Spaceflight through the Mouse Retina

Ocular alterations have been observed at anatomical levels in astronauts on long duration spaceflight missions, such as what would be required for missions to Mars. These alterations cause an array of signs which together constitute the Spaceflight-Associated Neuro-ocular Syndrome (SANS), one of the top risk priorities of the NASA Human Research Program. Not much is known about SANS at the cellular and molecular level, but studies in mice and rats have recently begun to yield observations on how the spaceflight environment might affect the eye’s biology. Preliminary data from shuttle mouse experiments, and more recently experiments on ISS, have shown changes in retinal physiology via histology and gene expression analysis. This study utilizes samples from the CASIS sponsored Rodent Research 8 Experiment (RRRM-1) tissue sharing opportunity, delivered to the ISS by SpaceX CRS-16 on 12/08/2018. Female BALB/cAnNTac mice were on the ISS for 45 days, while ground controls consisted ofa standard vivarium group and spaceflight habitat group. Here we investigate the molecular response of the mouse retina to identify genes and pathways affected by spaceflight conditions using histology and transcriptomic RNAseq data. This Differentially Expressed Gene (DEG) data was used for pathway analysis with Galaxy (Genelab) and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA). We identified pathways related to neuronal differentiation, cellular transport/movement, and wound healing. Some of the top DEGs have known relation to ophthalmic diseases. Though there were DEGs throughout the comparisons we tested, there was no clear effect of spaceflight. This could be due to sample processing, which required mice to be returned to Earth about a day before they were sacrificed, possibly allowing for readaptation affecting the retinal transcriptome. However, there was a clear effect of age, between the young (10-12 weeks) and old (32 weeks) groups, and between the baseline and end of experiment, about 46 days.

SANS↗
NASA NTRS2012

Preparation for the Proof of Concept Flight of the Veggie Plant Growth Chamber

Veggie is a small plant growth chamber designed and built by ORBITEC that will fly to the International Space Station on SpaceX-3, scheduled for the summer of 2013. Ultimately Veggie will be used for research, education and outreach, and crew recreation. We want to demonstrate the functionality of this hardware by testing a scenario that could allow the crew to grow and consume fresh vegetables. Veggie will be collapsed and transported flat in a cargo transfer bag, and deployed on orbit, where it will be installed in an EXPRESS rack. The chamber consists of three subsystems: an LED light cap, a transparent bellows, and a root mat reservoir assembly. The bellows and flexible support arms allow the distance between plants and light cap to be adjusted for different ages and types of plants. Researchers at Kennedy Space Center and ORBITEC have been working to develop the plant growth interfaces for the proof of concept flight. We have developed a rooting pillow, consisting of a small bag containing media, time release fertilizer, seeds, and a wicking surface to conduct water from the root mat reservoir. Prototype pillows have been tested and results have influenced the design of flight pillows, which will be modified for microgravity from flight-approved materials. Several studies have been conducted selecting species and comparing media types in analog systems. Water content seems to be the most important factor differentiating media types in these small growth volumes (100 mL). Media type also influenced microbial levels on plants. Since produce sanitizing agents are not currently approved for growing food crops on orbit, plants and media types having very low microbial levels are being selected. Lettuce, mizuna, and other salad greens typically have microbial counts less than 10(exp 4) colony forming units and thus are good candidates for spaceflight. As we approach flight verification testing, we will finalize species, media selection, harvesting, and microbial sampling procedures. Next steps include testing of Veggie flight and ground hardware and associated equipment. This research was funded by NASA.

Massa, Gioia↗
NASA NTRS2017

DEEP SPACE INDUSTRIALIZATION: Key To Sustainable Exploration, Development and Settlement of the Solar System

Recent developments related to deep space exploration and development have raised the question of whether the paradigm shift that many people have been expecting, from space exploration to space development and industrialization, is finally occurring. These recent events include Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX) announcement that they have been contacted by two wealthy individuals who would like to travel around the Moon within the next two years and a recently reported story of Jeff Bezos’ proposal to the Trump Administration to offer cargo delivery services to the Lunar surface (Blue Moon) by mid 2020 as part of a public/private partnership with NASA. In addition Bob Bigelow, founder of Bigelow Aerospace, has announced the capability and desire to put a crewed space station in orbit around the Moon in this same 2020 time period. Moon Express has also recently announced that they are fully funded for their attempt to land their robotic probe on the lunar surface at the end of this year, not only to win the Google Lunar XPrize but also to jump start their lunar mining efforts. On the international front the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg has established a 200 million euro fund to invest in space mining companies with the aim of making Luxembourg the European leader in deep space commerce. To date they have made investments in two companies; Deep Space Industries and Planetary Resources both of which were established to prospect and mine near Earth asteroids. Other counties such as India, China, Japan and even Israel are eying this high frontier for deep space commerce. This paper will explore how these developments could help enable this deep space industrialization and jumpstart a thriving deep space economy. The role that NASA and the US government can and should play in this effort and the role of public/private partnerships will also be discussed. Finally, what these developments could lead to over the next 10-15 years will be analysed and the potential size of this deep space economy will be estimated.

Pittman, Robert B.↗
NASA NTRS2018

The Recent Large Reduction in Space Launch Cost

The development of commercial launch systems has substantially reduced the cost of space launch. NASA’s space shuttle had a cost of about $1.5 billion to launch 27,500 kg to Low Earth Orbit (LEO), $54,500/kg. SpaceX’s Falcon 9 now advertises a cost of $62 million to launch 22,800 kg to LEO, $2,720/kg. Commercial launch has reduced the cost to LEO by a factor of 20. This will have a substantial impact on the space industry, military space, and NASA. Existing launch providers are reducing their costs and so are satellite developers. The military foresees an opportunity to rapidly replace compromised space assets that provided communications, weather, surveillance, and positioning. NASA supported the development of commercial space launch and NASA science anticipates lower cost missions, but human space flight planning seems unreactive. Specifically, it has been claimed that commercial spaceflight has not reduced the cost to provide cargo to the International Space Station (ISS). The key factor is that the space shuttle can provide cargo and crew to ISS while the Falcon 9 must also use the Dragon capsule, which adds cost and reduces payload. The cost of a Falcon 9 and Dragon capsule mission to ISS is about $140 million with a payload of 6,000 kg, $23,300/kg. The shuttle payload to ISS is less than to LEO, 16,050 kg, so its cost is also higher at $93,400/kg. The launch cost to ISS has been reduced by a factor of 4. Calculations that show commercial launch provides no cost reduction to ISS assume half the usually cited shuttle cost and allocate it to the actual delivered payload, about half the full capacity. In a split mission, with crew and pressurized cargo launched separately from hardware and materials, the higher Falcon 9 plus Dragon costs would apply only to a fraction of the launch mass. A 4 to 1 cost reduction saves most, 75%, of the total cost. A further reduction to 10 or 20 to 1 saves 90 or 95%, but this is only a small, 15 or 20%, portion of the original cost. The recently reduced space launch cost can be expected to substantially impact human space flight.

Jones, Harry W.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

A Crew and Logistics Lander for the Common Habitat Architecture

The Common Habitat Architecture is a conceptual study that explores the use of a large habitat derived from the Space Launch System (SLS) liquid oxygen tank as a core habitation element that can be used for crew missions or training in 0g, 1/6g, 3/8g, and 1g. This is not part of current NASA Artemis mission planning, but instead represents an architecture that could potentially follow after the Artemis missions and initial human Mars landings. This architecture leverages Starship-derived vehicles for crew landing on and ascent from the Moon and Mars in support of long-duration surface missions with pressurized crew transfer baselined as a nominal capability. This is not the Human Landing System variant of Starship but represents a number of modifications to enable long-duration surface missions with an eight-person crew size. A rapid brainstorming study was conducted in February of 2021, using only public data, to identify options to deliver the 90-ton Common Habitat to the surface and emplace it at the intended habitation site. This study compared three lunar lander concepts and three Mars lander concepts before ultimately selecting the SpaceX Starship as the most viable lander. The Common Habitat Architecture assumes that this Starship variant can further be modified for crew and cargo delivery, assuming that the use of a common system will lead to cost benefits. It is assumed that the Starship will expend too much propellant in landing crew and logistics to be able to launch, given the assumed absence of surface propellant production. Consequently, a separable ascent stage is used for crew ascent. The pressurized elements of this modified Starship are discussed: Starship Ascent Module, Airlock, Transfer Tunnel, Pressurized Crew Transfer Module, and Logistics Modules. For each element, a description, dimensions, rough mass estimates, core capabilities, and design features are presented. Key mechanisms and internal structures of the starship are also discussed. This will include flame diverters for the ascend module, the orbital docking hatch, Pressurized Crew Transfer Module Garage door, Starship Ascent Module fairing, flame diverter blow-out panels, Pressurized Crew Transfer Module lift system, logistics module lift system, contingency crew ascent via the logistics module lift system, internal catwalks, and structural interfaces. Concept of Operations will be discussed for both Moon and Mars. This will include in-space crew rendezvous and transfer, crewed landing, shirtsleeve crew transfer, crew departure, contingency surface operations, and final element disposition. Key differences for Mars will be discussed, such as the Martian atmosphere, dust storms, the absence of crew handover, and Deep Space Exploration Vehicle rendezvous. Contingency microgravity maintenance access will also be discussed. This work will demonstrate viable pressurized crew transfer with a Starship-based lander architecture. Forward work includes Garage lighting and camera systems, Starship Ascent Module propulsion system and docking port trades, contingency habitation trades, and mass/power equipment estimation. Finally, forward work includes developing a heavy cargo return system derived from the Crew and Logistics Starship. The goal of this system is the return of at least 10,000 kg payloads from the surfaces of the Moon and Mars.

Lunar Lander↗
NASA NTRS2014

Maiden Voyage of the Rodent Habitat on ISS: Opportunities for Investigating Molecular Mechanisms and Biomedical Consequences of Long Duration Spaceflight

Research using rodents is an essential tool for advancing biomedical research on Earth and in space. The National Research Counsel’s Decadal survey (1) emphasized the importance of expanding NASAs life sciences research to perform long duration, rodent experiments on the International Space Station (ISS). To accomplish this objective, flight hardware, operations, and science capabilities were developed at NASA ARC to support both commercial and government-sponsored research. In preparation for the maiden voyage of the Rodent Habitat hardware and operations system (Rodent Research-1), and in close consultation with a Science Working Group comprised of veterinarians and experienced spaceflight investigators, we modified existing Animal Enclosure Module hardware, developed new hardware, operations, and science activities, and performed a series of ground-based verification tests. Preflight, ground based hardware tests included a simulation of SpaceX Dragon launch conditions (vibration and hypergravity) using the Transporter, and also two long-term biocompatibility tests (32 and 92 days) using the Habitat developed for long term housing on the ISS. The launch simulation test showed that adult mice housed in Transporter hardware adapted well, even if launch simulation was followed by a period of simulated weightlessness (via hind limb unloading). The biocompatibility tests demonstrated that the Habitat successfully supported animal health and also provided a useful video imaging system that enables frequent monitoring of animal health and behavior by veterinary and scientific experts on the ground, independent of ISS crew intervention. At the conclusion of all tests, mice were deemed healthy and suitable for conducting biological research. Additional preflight analyses of tissues preserved by freezing or fixation for gene expression analyses revealed that spleen and liver tissues recovered under conditions that simulated on-orbit activities yielded high quality RNA (RIN values 8-10) and liver enzyme activities and protein content (e.g. catalase). In addition, new methods were developed to optimize future science return by dissecting tissues post-euthanasia and storage. Various tissues were harvested from either intact or partially dissected, frozen carcasses after storage for ~2-6 months; most of the tissues (brain, heart, kidney, eye, adrenal glands and skeletal muscle) were of high RNA quality for science return, whereas some tissues (small intestine, bone marrow and bones) were not. These data demonstrated the protocols developed for future flight experiments supported science return despite delayed preservation post-euthanasia or prolonged storage, and furthermore, that high-quality RNA samples from many different tissues can be recovered by dissection following prolonged storage of the tissue in situ at -80˚C. The first flight experiments carrying 20 mice were launched on Sept 21, 2014 in an unmanned Dragon Capsule, SpaceX4; Rodent Research-1 is dedicated to achieving both NASA validation and CASIS science objectives. Ground based control groups (housed in flight hardware or standard cages) were maintained in environmental chambers at Kennedy Space Center. Crewmembers previously trained in animal handling transferred mice from the Transporter into Habitats under simultaneous veterinary supervision by video streaming and were deemed healthy. Health and behavior of all mice on the ISS was monitored by video feed on a daily basis. The 10 mice for validation (16wk old, female C57Bl6/J) ambulated freely and actively throughout the Habitat, relying heavily on their forelimbs for locomotion. The first on-orbit dissections of mice were performed successfully on Oct 12 and 13, 2014, and the validation mice will reside on ISS for up to 30 days. In conclusion, new capability for long duration rodent research is under development, including in-flight sample collection (which avoids the complication of reentry); results obtained to date will be described. This new Rodent Research system enables achievement of both basic science and translational research objectives to advance human exploration of space.

maiden voyage↗
NASA NTRS2014

Design Concepts for a Small Space-Based GEO Relay Satellite for Missions Between Low Earth and near Earth Orbits

The main purpose of the Small Space-Based Geosynchronous Earth orbiting (GEO) satellite is to provide a space link to the user mission spacecraft for relaying data through ground networks to user Mission Control Centers. The Small Space Based Satellite (SSBS) will provide services comparable to those of a NASA Tracking Data Relay Satellite (TDRS) for the same type of links. The SSBS services will keep the user burden the same or lower than for TDRS and will support the same or higher data rates than those currently supported by TDRS. At present, TDRSS provides links and coverage below GEO; however, SSBS links and coverage capability to above GEO missions are being considered for the future, especially for Human Space Flight Missions (HSF). There is also a rising need for the capability to support high data rate links (exceeding 1 Gbps) for imaging applications. The communication payload on the SSBS will provide S/Ka-band single access links to the mission and a Ku-band link to the ground, with an optical communication payload as an option. To design the communication payload, various link budgets were analyzed and many possible operational scenarios examined. To reduce user burden, using a larger-sized antenna than is currently in use by TDRS was considered. Because of the SSBS design size, it was found that a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket could deliver three SSBSs to GEO. This will greatly reduce the launch costs per satellite. Using electric propulsion was also evaluated versus using chemical propulsion; the power system size and time to orbit for various power systems were also considered. This paper will describe how the SSBS will meet future service requirements, concept of operations, and the design to meet NASA users' needs for below and above GEO missions. These users' needs not only address the observational mission requirements but also possible HSF missions to the year 2030. We will provide the trade-off analysis of the communication payload design in terms of the number of links looking above and below GEO; the detailed design of a GEO SSBS spacecraft bus and its accommodation of the communication payload, and a summary of the trade study that resulted in the selection of the Falcon 9 launch vehicle to deploy the SSBS and its impact on cost reductions per satellite. ======================================================================== Several initiatives have taken place within NASA1 and international space agencies2 to create a human exploration strategy for expanding human presence into the solar system; these initiatives have been driven by multiple factors to benefit Earth. Of the many elements in the strategy one stands out: to send robotic and human missions to destinations beyond Low Earth Orbit (LEO), including cis-lunar space, Near-Earth Asteroids (NEAs), the Moon, and Mars and its moons.3, 4 The time frame for human exploration to various destinations, based on the public information available,1,4 is shown in Figure 1. Advance planning is needed to define how future space communications services will be provided in the new budget environment to meet future space communications needs. The spacecraft for these missions can be dispersed anywhere from below LEO to beyond GEO, and to various destinations within the solar system. NASA's Space Communications and Navigation (SCaN) program office provides communication and tracking services to space missions during launch, in-orbit testing, and operation phases. Currently, SCaN's space networking relay satellites mainly provide services to users below GEO, at Near Earth Orbit (NEO), below LEO, and in deep space. The potential exists for using a space-based relay satellite, located in the vicinity of various solar system destinations, to provide communication space links to missions both below and above its orbit. Such relays can meet the needs of human exploration missions for maximum connectivity to Earth locations and for reduced latency. In the past, several studies assessed the ability of satellite-based relays working above GEO in conjunction with Earth ground stations. Many of these focused on the trade between space relay and direct-to-Earth station links5,6,7. Several others focused on top-level architecture based on relays at various destinations8,9,10,11,12. Much has changed in terms of microwave and optical technology since the publication of the referenced papers; Ka-band communication systems are being deployed, optical communication is being demonstrated, and spacecraft buses are becoming increasingly more functional and operational. A design concept study was undertaken to access the potential for deploying a Small Space-Based Satellite (SSBS) relay capable of serving missions between LEO and NEO. The needs of future human exploration missions were analyzed, and a notional relay-based architecture concept was generated as shown in Fig. 1. Relay satellites in Earth through cis-Lunar orbits are normally located in stable orbits requiring low fuel consumption. Relay satellites for Mars orbit are normally selected based on the mission requirement and projected fuel consumption. Relay satellites have extreme commonalities of functions between them, differing only in the redundancy and frequencies used; therefore, the relay satellite in GEO was selected for further analysis since it will be the first step in achieving a relay-based architecture for human exploration missions (see Fig.Figure 2). The mission design methodology developed by the Collaborative Modeling for Parametric Assessment of Space Systems (COMPASS) team13 was used to produce the satellite relay design and to perform various design trades. At the start of the activity, the team was provided with the detailed concept of the notional architecture and the system and communication payload drivers.

Relay Satellites↗