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DOE OSTI2025

Measurements of attenuation and scattering properties of water-based liquid scintillator

Water-based liquid scintillator (WbLS) is a hybrid detector medium which has been proposed as a fill material for future large-volume rare event searches, including ν − detectors. This family of scintillating suspensions promises waterlike attenuation and scattering behavior, while offering scintillation light yield for sub-Cherenkov-threshold events. These features may allow for improved vertex and energy resolution, and concomitant improvements in background rejection and particle identification. While subscale measurements of light yield, timing and pulse-shape have been performed in several WbLS formulations, detailed measurements of the attenuation and scattering properties of WbLS remain a critical, unresolved step along the pathway to deployment. In pursuit of a better understanding of these parameters, a “long-arm” attenuation and scattering instrument has been developed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, dubbed LASE (Livermore Attenuation and Scattering Experiment). Optical property measurements have been performed using LASE in DI water, Gd-water, WbLS and Gd-WbLS. Measurements of the optical properties of WbLS (1% LAB-PPO scintillator) provided by Brookhaven National Laboratory demonstrate an attenuation minimum of 4.87 × 10 − 4 ± 1.42 × 10 − 4 cm − 1 at 450 nm, while Gd-loaded WbLS (1% LAB-PPO scintillator, 0.1% Gd) demonstrated a minimum attenuation coefficient of 4.77 × 10 − 4 ± 1.27 × 10 − 4 cm − 1 at the same wavelength. Measurements of scattering in WbLS show a scattering coefficient of 3.39 × 10 − 4 ± 1.98 × 10 − 5 cm − 1 at the 450 nm attenuation minimum, while Gd-WbLS has a scattering coefficient of 2.8 × 10 − 4 ± 1.63 × 10 − 5 cm − 1 at that wavelength. These scattering and attenuation coefficients are significantly larger than measured for DI water at similar wavelengths ( 8.8 × 10 − 5 cm − 1 ± 3.8 × 10 − 5 attenuation at 430 nm, 2.2 × 10 − 5 ± 1.28 × 10 − 6 cm − 1 scattering). Though the WbLS attenuation and scattering coefficients measured are lower than the corresponding values published for ultrapure oils and LAB-PPO liquid scintillator, the material tested attenuates significantly more than water across the blue and green portions of the visible spectrum. This attenuation is markedly stronger at wavelengths under 430 nm. Published by the American Physical Society 2025

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗

DOE OSTI2026

Comparing Thermal Neutron Scintillators for Use With SiPM-Readout Detectors

Scintillator-based thermal neutron detectors for scientific scattering facilities offer an effective combination of large-area coverage and good spatial resolution. At Oak Ridge National Laboratory, silicon photomultiplier (SiPM)-readout Anger cameras using 6 Li glass scintillators have been developed, but the spatial resolution of these detectors is limited by the relatively low light yield of the glass. Recently, several brighter scintillator compositions with sufficient 6 Li concentration have emerged as promising candidates for higher-resolution imaging. Here, in this work, we evaluate five scintillator materials: GS20, LiF/ZnS:Ag, LiF/ZnO:Zn, LiI:Eu, and Cs 2 LiYCl 6 :Ce, each mounted on a SiPM Anger camera. For each scintillator, the neutron detection efficiency, spatial resolution, and count rate capabilities were measured and compared. Each of the new compositions achieved a spatial resolution better than 0.5 mm, compared to 0.66 mm for GS20, with LiI:Eu reaching the best value of 0.32 mm. Although these compositions improve the spatial resolution of the Anger camera, their longer pulse decay times limit their use in high count rate applications, and the camera’s hardware must be optimized for the different properties of the new scintillators.

Neutron detectors↗

DOE OSTI2025

Fluorescence time profile measurement of LAB based liquid scintillator in response to medium relativistic ion particles

Liquid scintillator is widely used in particle physics experiments due to its high light yield, good timing resolution, scalability and low cost. Certain liquid scintillators exhibit pulse shape discrimination capabilities because of difference in fluorescence timing properties induced by different particles. Its fluoresence timing properties have been measured mostly for radioactive decay sources at MeV energies. Here, we present a novel measurement of fluorescence time properties of Linear Alkyl Benzene (LAB) based liquid scintillator in response to high-energy ions of hydrogen (Z = 1), helium (Z = 2) and krypton at around 200–300 MeV/u for the first time. We compared the results to those from radioactive sources and observed a distinct dE / dX dependence, regardless of the particle type. These findings are essential for physics searches such as the diffuse supernova neutrino background in large liquid scintillator detectors like JUNO, and are also critical towards understanding the underlying scintillation timing mechanism.

Ion identification systems↗

DOE OSTI2026

350 ps Ultrafast room-temperature scintillation realized on CsPbBr 3 -based single crystals via Br 2 over-doping

Ultrafast scintillators are essential for next-generation radiation detection, positron emission tomography, and high-speed medical imaging. All-inorganic CsPbBr 3 perovskites are attractive candidates because of their high stopping power, and excellent optical quality, yet their long carrier lifetimes result in slow scintillation responses on the order of hundreds of nanoseconds. Here, we demonstrate that controlled over-doping with Br 2 produces CsPbBr 3.03 single crystals with sub-nanosecond scintillation at room temperature while preserving crystal quality. Single crystals grown by the Bridgman method exhibit high transparency and maintain the orthorhombic perovskite structure. Br 2 over-doping induces a slight lattice expansion (about 0.42% increase in unit-cell volume) while maintaining the orthorhombic perovskite phase and high optical transparency. Optical absorption reveals a slight redshift of the absorption edge after Br 2 introduction, indicating a modified defect landscape. Time-resolved photoluminescence and radioluminescence measurements show that Br 2 doping creates dense and efficient recombination centers that reduce the scintillation decay time from more than 100 ns in undoped crystals to 350 ps under 5.486 MeV α-particle excitation, and the scintillation decay time decreases by two orders of magnitude. The doped crystals also achieve a spatial resolution of 12 lp mm −1 in X-ray imaging. These results reveal a defect-engineering route for achieving ultrafast scintillation in halide perovskites and highlight the potential of Br 2 -modified CsPbBr 3 for fast timing applications.

Li, Zongxiao [Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), N↗

DOE OSTI2025

Improved heavy-ion PID using scintillation light detector with neural network analysis: a Monte Carlo simulation study

The photon collection efficiency of gaseous scintillator detectors varies according to the position of the impinging charged particles in the medium that generates scintillation light. Thus, when impinging particles are distributed over a large area, the intrinsic photon-number resolution of the system is affected by a large variation. This work presents and discusses a method for adjusting the total number of detected photons to account for variation in the photon collection efficiency as a function of the position of the light source within the scintillating medium. The method was developed and validated by processing data from systematic simulation studies based on GEANT4 that model the response of the Energy Loss Optical Scintillation System (ELOSS) detector. The position of the charged particle is calculated using a deep neural network algorithm. This is accomplished by analyzing the distribution of scintillation light recorded by the array of photosensors. The estimated particle position is then used to calculate the correction factor and adjust the amount of captured light to account for variations in the photon collection efficiency. The neural network algorithm provides excellent tracking capabilities, achieving sub-millimeter position resolution and an angular resolution of 12 mrad, approaching the performance of traditional tracking detectors (e.g., drift chambers). The present method can be generalized to any optical scintillation system where the photon collection efficiency depends on the position of the impinging particle.

Heavy-ion detectors↗

DOE OSTI2025

Study of the Scintillating Properties of Materials Based on Self- Assembling Quantum Dots Embedded into a Semiconductor Bulk

The goal of the project is to investigate scintillating properties of materials based on self-assembled InAs QDs embedded into GaAs bulk. According to theoretical predictions, such materials can have scintillating properties and low self-absorption. Compared to scintillators based on inorganic scintillating crystals, QD-based scintillators could have significantly higher light yield and shorter emission times. We intend to check the theoretical predictions experimentally, measure scintillation parameters and their dependence on the QD-based materials and learn how the properties could be optimized for practical applications.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2025

Characterization of 6 Li-loaded pulse-shape-discriminating plastic scintillators

Lithium-loaded organic plastic scintillators combine sensitivity to γ rays with the ability to detect both fast and slow neutrons, making them valuable for applications in nuclear security and in basic nuclear and particle physics. The goal of this work is to characterize the neutron response of two custom lithium-loaded organic plastic scintillators developed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Both are ternary polystyrene-based formulations containing 1.5 wt.% 6 Li salts of isobutyric acid, but they differ in their primary and secondary dye compositions: one uses m-terphenyl as the primary fluor and with Exalite 404 as the wavelength shifter, whereas the other uses 2,5-diphenyloxazole (PPO) and 9,10-diphenyl-anthracene, respectively. The temporal response of the scintillators was measured via time-correlated single photon counting for γ-ray and neutron events. The proton light yield was measured using the double time-of-flight technique from 1.3 to 15 MeV at the 88-Inch Cyclotron at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. For the slow neutron response, an AmBe source moderated with polyethylene was used, and the light output from the 6 Li(n,α)t reaction was characterized. Differences in ionization quenching and temporal response were observed between the two materials with the PPO-containing scintillator exhibiting higher ionization quenching. These results provide performance benchmarks that can guide the design and optimization of future lithium-loaded plastic scintillators for use in basic science and applications.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗

DOE OSTI2025

Synergistic effects of Al, Ga, and In doping on ZnO nanorod arrays grown via citrate-assisted hydrothermal technique for highly efficient and fast scintillator screens

To be used as efficient alpha particle scintillator in the fields of nuclear security, nuclear nonproliferation and high-energy physics, scintillator screens must have high light output and fast decay properties. While there has been a great deal of progress in scintillation efficiency, achieving fast decay time properties are still a challenge. In this work, the near band edge (NBE) UV luminescence and alpha particle induced scintillation properties of vertically aligned densely packed ZnO nanorods (NRs) doped with Al, Ga, and In have been thoroughly investigated. The high crystalline hexagonal wurtzite structure with a strong orientation through the c -axis plane (002) and aspect ratios in the range 13–22 have been observed for all ZnO NRs. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) analysis exhibited paramagnetic signals at g ≈ 1.96 for all ZnO NRs. A cost effective green hydrothermal synthesis technique was employed to grow well-aligned NRs. Using citrate as an additive acting as a strong reducing agent in the solution during the crystal growth, defects on the surface are significantly suppressed, thereby enhancing the NBE UV emission. Significantly higher NBE UV emission was observed from the top surface of ZnO NRs in cathodoluminescence (CL) microscopy. Results show that citrate assisted donor doping of ZnO NRs not only reduces the defect emission and NBE self-absorption, but also induces fast decay time (~ 600–700 ps), which makes ZnO NRs a good candidate for fast alpha particle scintillator screens used in associated particle imaging for time and direction tagging of individual neutrons generated in D–T and D–D neutron generators.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2026

Muon tracking in a LiquidO opaque scintillator detector

LiquidO is an innovative radiation detector concept. The core idea is to exploit stochastic light confinement in a highly scattering medium to self-segment the detector volume. In this paper, we demonstrate event-by-event muon tracking in a LiquidO opaque scintillator detector prototype. The detector consists of a 30 mm cubic scintillator volume instrumented with 64 wavelength-shifting fibres arranged in an 8 × 8 grid with a 3.2 mm pitch and read out by silicon photomultipliers. A wax-based opaque scintillator with a scattering length of approximately 0.5 mm is used. The tracking performance of this LiquidO detector is characterised with cosmic-ray muons and the position resolution is demonstrated to be 450 μm per row of fibres. These results highlight the potential of LiquidO opaque scintillator detectors to achieve fine spatial resolution, enabling precise particle tracking and imaging.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2024

DRiFT current mode, trigger settings and flexible detector specifications applied to scintillator arrays

MCNP radiation transport output is post-processed by DRiFT, a Detector Response Function Toolkit to simulate detailed nuclear instrumentation response. DRiFT can be used to assess the performance and potential limitations of scintillator, gas, and semiconductor detectors under a variety of simulated conditions not easily achievable in a laboratory setting. This work describes new updates in DRiFT for scintillator simulations which focus on the capability to simulate scintillators in current mode, an expansion of trigger options, and the ability to customize individual detector properties in a simulation. These improvements are designed to facilitate the ability to model large arrays of scintillator detectors with higher fidelity than was previously possible and are demonstrated in three examples. The first shows the difference between operating DRiFT in current and pulse mode. In the second example, which is intended to demonstrate deviations in individual detector performance, each detector has properties (PMT gain, optical transport, scintillation yield, etc.) that vary between detectors and are specified in DRiFT. A final example examines how DRiFT could be used to optimize digitizer settings in high rate measurements with split signals using the new common trigger option.

38 RADIATION CHEMISTRY, RADIOCHEMISTRY, AND NUCLEA↗

DOE OSTI2024

Deployment of Water-based Liquid Scintillator in the Accelerator Neutrino Neutron Interaction Experiment

The Accelerator Neutrino Neutron Interaction Experiment (ANNIE) is a 26-ton water Cherenkov neutrino detector installed on the Booster Neutrino Beam (BNB) at Fermilab. Its main physics goals are to perform a measurement of the neutron yield from neutrino-nucleus interactions, as well as a measurement of the charged-current cross section of muon neutrinos. An equally important focus is the research and development of new detector technologies and target media. Specifically, water-based liquid scintillator (WbLS) is of interest as a novel detector medium, as it allows for the simultaneous detection of Cherenkov light and scintillation. This paper presents the deployment of a 366 L WbLS vessel in ANNIE in March 2023 and the subsequent detection of both Cherenkov light and scintillation from the WbLS. Finally, this proof-of-concept allows for the future development of reconstruction and particle identification algorithms in ANNIE, as well as dedicated analyses within the WbLS volume, such as the search for neutral-current events and the hadronic scintillation component.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗

DOE OSTI2024

Development of a bi-solvent liquid scintillator with slow light emission

One of the most promising approaches for the next generation of neutrino experiments is the realization of large hybrid Cherenkov/scintillation detectors made possible by recent innovations in photodetection technology and liquid scintillator chemistry. The development of a potentially suitable future detector liquid with particularly slow light emission is discussed in the present publication. This cocktail is compared with respect to its fundamental characteristics (scintillation efficiency, transparency, and time profile of light emission) with liquid scintillators currently used in large-scale neutrino detectors. In addition, the optimization of the admixture of wavelength shifters for a scintillator with particularly high light emission is presented. Furthermore, the pulse-shape discrimination capabilities of the novel medium was studied using a pulsed particle accelerator driven neutron source. Beyond that, purification methods based on column chromatography and fractional vacuum distillation for the co-solvent DIN (Diisopropylnaphthalene) are discussed.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗

DOE OSTI2024

Response of a high-pressure 4 He scintillation detector to nuclear recoils up to 9 MeV

Helium-4-based scintillation detector technology is emerging as a strong alternative to pulse-shape discrimination-capable organic scintillators for fast neutron detection and spectroscopy, particularly in extreme gamma-ray environments. The 4 He detector is intrinsically insensitive to gamma radiation, as it has a relatively low cross-section for gamma-ray interactions, and the stopping power of electrons in the 4 He medium is low compared to that of 4 He recoil nuclei. Consequently, gamma rays can be discriminated by simple energy deposition thresholding instead of the more complex pulse shape analysis. The energy resolution of 4 He scintillation detectors has not yet been well-characterized over a broad range of energy depositions, which limits the ability to deconvolve the source spectra. In this work, an experiment was performed to characterize the response of an Arktis S670 4 He detector to nuclear recoils up to 9 MeV. The 4 He detector was positioned in the center of a semicircular array of organic scintillation detectors operated in coincidence. Deuterium–deuterium and deuterium–tritium neutron generators provided monoenergetic neutrons, yielding geometrically constrained nuclear recoils ranging from 0.0925 to 8.87 MeV. The detector response provides evidence for scintillation linearity beyond the previously reported energy range. Finally, the measured response was used to develop an energy resolution function applicable to this energy range for use in high-fidelity detector simulations needed by future applications.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗

DOE OSTI2024

Bright and durable scintillation from colloidal quantum shells

Abstract Efficient, fast, and robust scintillators for ionizing radiation detection are crucial in various fields, including medical diagnostics, defense, and particle physics. However, traditional scintillator technologies face challenges in simultaneously achieving optimal performance and high-speed operation. Herein we introduce colloidal quantum shell heterostructures as X-ray and electron scintillators, combining efficiency, speed, and durability. Quantum shells exhibit light yields up to 70,000 photons MeV −1 at room temperature, enabled by their high multiexciton radiative efficiency thanks to long Auger-Meitner lifetimes (>10 ns). Radioluminescence is fast, with lifetimes of 2.5 ns and sub-100 ps rise times. Additionally, quantum shells do not exhibit afterglow and maintain stable scintillation even under high X-ray doses (>10 9 Gy). Furthermore, we showcase quantum shells for X-ray imaging achieving a spatial resolution as high as 28 line pairs per millimeter. Overall, efficient, fast, and durable scintillation make quantum shells appealing in applications ranging from ultrafast radiation detection to high-resolution imaging.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗

DOE OSTI2024

Solution processed high aspect ratio ultra-long vertically well-aligned ZnO nano scintillators for potential X-ray imaging applications

We report the photon (PL), electron (CL) and X-ray (XEL) induced luminescence characteristics of high aspect ratio ultra-long (~ 50 µm) ZnO nanorods (NRs) and discuss the potential for fast X-ray detection based on the consistent and efficient visible emission (~ 580 nm) from ZnO NRs. Nanostructured ZnO scintillators were rearranged to form a vertically well-aligned NR design in order to help light absorption and coupling resulting in luminescent and fast scintillation properties. The design of the nanorod array combines the key advantages of a low-cost growth technique together with environmentally friendly and widely available materials. A low temperature hydrothermal method was adopted to grow ZnO NRs in one cycle growth and their structural, optical and X-ray scintillation properties were investigated. The relatively short (~ 10 µm) ZnO NRs emitting in the near-band-edge region were found to be almost insensitive to X-rays. On the other hand, the higher XEL response of long ZnO NRs, which is a key parameter for evaluation of materials to be used as scintillators for high quality X-ray detection and imaging, along with a decay time response in the order of ns confirmed promising scintillation properties for fast and high-resolution X-ray detector applications.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗

DOE OSTI2026

Scintillator Library

This website provides measured scintillation properties of many inorganic and organic materials and citations to published papers in which the original measurements were reported. It is intended for two main uses: a web-accessible reference to useful scintillation detector materials and properties; an aid in developing fundamental theories or empirical relations between basic material properties and scintillation performance. To this end, both strong and weak scintillators have been included as well as those where sensitive measurements have not detected any scintillation emissions.

Shook, L. [University of California, Berkeley, CA ↗

DOE OSTI2024

DRiFT Current Mode, Trigger Settings and Flexible Detector Specifications Applied to Scintillator Arrays

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗

DOE OSTI2026

Detection of scintillation light in noble gases with wavelength-shifting optical fibers

Wavelength-shifting (WLS) techniques enable particle detectors based on noble gases, whose scintillation light is predominantly emitted in the vacuum-ultraviolet. We investigate WLS fibers coated with tetraphenyl butadiene (TPB) for scintillation light detection in gaseous xenon and argon at pressures up to 8.5 bar, motivated by future high-pressure xenon time-projection chambers of the NEXT program. Two detector configurations are studied: an elongated high-pressure vessel with four PTFE panels equipped with WLS fibers read by temperature-stabilized SiPMs, and a compact box-shaped detector operated at 1 bar Xe with WLS fibers read out by PMTs. Both operate with continuous gas purification. The detector response is characterized using cosmic muons and alpha particles from a $^{241}$Am source. With the SiPM setup, we measure a light collection efficiency (LCE) of ${1.18 \pm 0.01~\mathrm{(sta.)}~^{+0.07}_{-0.09}~\mathrm{(sys.)}~\%}$ for xenon and ${1.07 \pm 0.01~\mathrm{(sta.)}~^{+0.06}_{-0.08}~\mathrm{(sys.)}~\%}$ for argon. With PMT readout, we measure a LCE of ${0.45 \pm 0.01~\mathrm{(sta.)} \pm 0.05~\mathrm{(sys.)}~\%}$ in xenon, in agreement with the SiPM result once photon detection efficiency is accounted for. Average scintillation waveforms in xenon and argon are studied to assess the time structure of the emitted light. Cosmic-muon measurements yield a mean energy required to produce a scintillation photon $45\pm7~\mathrm{(sta.)}~^{+4}_{-5}~\mathrm{(sys.)}~\mathrm{eV}$ at 1.5 bar, in agreement with the literature. The results demonstrate that TPB-coated WLS fiber systems can reliably detect scintillation light in high-pressure gaseous noble detectors, with a LCE representing an upper limit for realistic large-scale TPCs, where additional photon losses from materials and fiber attenuation are expected.

Soleti, S. R. [Donostia Intl. Phys. Ctr., San Seba↗