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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 37 records · Page 2
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

In-situ/operando study of Cu-based nanocatalysts for CO 2 electroreduction using electrochemical liquid cell TEM

The structure of a nanocatalyst during electrocatalytic reactions often deviates from its pristine structure due to intrinsic properties, or physical and chemical adsorption at the catalytic surfaces. Taking Cu-based catalysts for CO 2 electroreduction reactions (CO 2 RR) as an example, they often experience segregation, leaching, and alloying during reactions. With the recent breakthrough development of high-resolution polymer electrochemical liquid cells, in-situ electrochemical liquid cell transmission electron microscopy (EC-TEM) alongside other advanced microscopy techniques, has become a powerful platform for revealing electrocatalysts restructuring at the atomic level. Considering the complex reactions involving electrified solid-liquid interfaces and catalyst structural evolution with intermediates, systematic studies with multimodal approaches are crucial. In this article, we demonstrate a research protocol for the study of electrocatalysts structural evolution during reactions using the in-situ EC-TEM platform. Using Cu and CuAg nanowire catalysts for CO 2 RR as model systems, we describe the experimental procedures and findings. We highlight the platform’s crucial role in elucidating atomic-scale pathways of nanocatalyst restructuring and identifying catalytic active sites, as well as avoiding potential artifacts to ensure unbiased conclusions. Using the multimodal characterization toolbox, we provide the opportunity to correlate the structure of a working catalyst with its performance. Finally, we discuss advancements as well as the remaining gap in elucidating the structural-performance relationship of working catalysts. We expect this article will assist in establishing guidelines for future investigations of complex electrochemical reactions, such as CO 2 RR and other catalytic processes, using the in-situ EC-TEM platform.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2026

Processing-Dependent Structure and Poroelasticity of Nafion in Liquid Water

Ionomers act as the solid polymer electrolyte membrane in many modern electrochemical devices, yet the role of their nanostructure in modulating the poroelastic response remains poorly understood, especially in liquid water, where few techniques can measure simultaneous transport-mechanical properties. Poroelastic Relaxation Indentation (PRI) is uniquely suited for measuring time-dependent transport-mechanical properties of porous solids, specifically hydraulic diffusivity, elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio, and intrinsic permeability, for porous solids. While ionomers such as Nafion are not porous in the typical sense, Nafion has a nanophase-segregated structure that, when fully swollen in liquid water, behaves as a poroelastic solid with a coupled mechanical-transport response. Using a poroelastic framework, we investigate how casting and pretreatment of Nafion membranes alter their poroelastic response in liquid environments. We characterize both extruded and dispersion-cast Nafion membranes pretreated in water at 25 or 100 °C and relate the mechanical-transport properties to the ionomer structure via hydrophilic and intercrystalline domain spacing measured using Small-Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS). At 25 °C, dispersion-cast membranes exhibit distinctly lower hydraulic diffusivity and intrinsic permeability than extruded membranes but with comparable mechanical properties. Pretreatment at 100 °C increases hydrophilic domain spacing, improving transport but at the expense of mechanical stiffness. Dispersion-cast membranes respond more strongly to pretreatment than extruded membranes. Using the Carman-Kozeny pore network model and the hydrophilic domain-spacing, we estimate the pore radius and tortuosity to show how pretreatment reduces structure-related tortuosity differences between dispersion-cast and extruded membranes. Here, in this work, we show that nanophase-segregated materials such as Nafion can be rigorously characterized using poroelasticity, resulting in physically meaningful transport-mechanical properties. Coupling PRI with SAXS provides insights into the nanostructural features that govern the coupled mechanical-transport response. By establishing PRI for a nanophase-segregated material, this approach opens avenues for this technique’s application in other hydrated polymeric materials not typically considered to be poroelastic.

Shen, Margaret [University of California, Berkeley↗
DOE OSTI2022

Q-dependent collective relaxation dynamics of glass-forming liquid Ca0.4K0.6(NO3)1.4 investigated by wide-angle neutron spin-echo

Abstract The relaxation behavior of glass formers exhibits spatial heterogeneity and dramatically changes upon cooling towards the glass transition. However, the underlying mechanisms of the dynamics at different microscopic length scales are not fully understood. Employing the recently developed wide-angle neutron spin-echo spectroscopy technique, we measured the Q -dependent coherent intermediate scattering function of a prototypical ionic glass former Ca 0.4 K 0.6 (NO 3 ) 1.4 , in the highly viscous liquid state. In contrast to the structure modulated dynamics for Q < 2.4 Å −1 , i.e., at and below the structure factor main peak, for Q > 2.4 Å −1 , beyond the first minimum above the structure factor main peak, the stretching exponent exhibits no temperature dependence and concomitantly the relaxation time shows smaller deviations from Arrhenius behavior. This finding indicates a change in the dominant relaxation mechanisms around a characteristic length of 2π/(2.4 Å −1 ) ≈ 2.6 Å, below which the relaxation process exhibits a temperature independent distribution and more Arrhenius-like behavior.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2022

Path Integral Monte Carlo Simulations of Iron Plasmas (Final Technical Report)

This documents is the final technical report for our grant entitled "Path Integral Monte Carlo Simulations of Iron Plasmas" that focused on developing path integral Monte Carlo (PIMC) computer simulations. This techniques will be developed to study plasmas composed of heavier elements including iron and other third row elements. Equations of state (EOS) and transport properties will be derived in the regime of warm dense matter (WDM) and dense plasmas where existing first-principles methods cannot be applied. While standard density functional theory (DFT) has been used to accurately predict the structure of many solids and liquids up to temperatures on the order of 100,000 K, this method is not applicable at much higher temperature because the number of partially occupied electronic orbitals reaches intractably large numbers or the use of finite-temperature free energy functionals in orbital-free DFT introduces an uncontrolled approximation. Here we focus on PIMC methods that become more and more efficient with increasing temperatures and still include all electronic correlation effects. In this approach, electronic excitations increase the efficiency rather than reduce it. While it had commonly been assumed this method could only be applied to elements without core electrons, we showed that PIMC with free-particle nodes works well for first-row elements (PRL 108 (2012) 115502). Most recently, we extended the applicability range of all-electron PIMC to second-row elements by adopting localized nodal surfaces (PRL 115 (2015) 176403). To simulate third-row elements efficiently under WDM conditions, we propose a new method to remove core electrons by introducing pseudo-nodes. We explain our approach step by step and present preliminary results. We focus our method development on getting PIMC simulations of iron to work because of its fundamental importance for WDM and astrophysics. Then we move on to krypton and copper-doped beryllium, a ICF ablator material. We plan to continue working on key second-row material such as Na, Mg, MgO, Al, silica, and silicon-doped plastic ablators. Our collaborators at LLNL, will use our PIMC EOS data both as comparisons to existing semi-empirical, EOS-generating schemes, and as input for continuum radiation hydrodynamics simulations. We will establish an efficient pipeline from PIMC to macroscopic continuum studies of materials response. An emphasis will be placed on benchmarking such methods for plasmas of heavy elements at the very high temperatures (~100 eV) and low densities that are generated when Hohlraum radiation heats the ablator material in indirect drive laser experiments. Results from changes to the EOS will be of immeasurable importance to the designers at the National Ignition Facility (NIF) and at other facilities. Starting with our EOS of Cu-doped Be, our second collaborator at LLE, will perform real-time simulations of laser fusion experiments at the Omega laser and at the NIF to determine how sensitive the compression path depends on the ablator EOS. Since our collaborator also has experience in performing orbital-free DFT calculations, we propose to compare predictions from this method with PIMC results. In joint publications, we plan to analyze the accuracy of different free-energy functionals in order to understand why existing orbital-free DFT calculations do not predict compression peaks along the shock Hugoniot curve that we see with PIMC. The peaks are caused by the ionization of various electron shells. Their accurate characterization is important to compare with experimental results. We will break new ground by developing PIMC techniques that can simulate iron and all other third row elements in the plasma and WDM regimes. We introduce the concept of pseudo-nodes for the efficient treatment of the core-electrons. The EOS and transport properties will be derived and published online in the form of a new WDM database. Our PIMC EOS calculations will benchmark and possibly replace semi-analytical EOS tables like QEOS or SESAME, which will impact the hydrocode simulation community and will affect the design of NIF targets. Our PIMC results will help to improve the accuracy of orbital-free DFT simulations.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2026

Complexity in the medium-range order of gallium as a polyvalent liquid metal

Simplicity in chemical composition does not always translate into simplicity in the structures and dynamics of liquids and solids. Some elementary liquid metals, such as gallium, show unusual behaviors in thermodynamic and transport properties as a result of their complex atomic structure and dynamics. Here, in this work, we study the real-space atomic correlation function of liquid gallium by neutron scattering. In the pair-distribution function, there exist two kinds of medium-range order (MRO), characterized by oscillations beyond the first nearest neighbors. On the other hand, the first neighbor shell shows only one kind of bond. The two types of MRO are strongly overlapping in space and fluctuating in time. We propose that they are the basis for anomalous behavior of liquid gallium. This view challenges the current view that liquid gallium consists of fluctuating metallic and insulating domains. These findings shed light on the interpretation of similar microscopic anomalies observed in other semimetallic liquids.

Hua, Chengyun [Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL↗
DOE OSTI2025

A Perspective on Multiscale Modeling of Explicit Solvation-Enabled Simulations of Catalysis at Liquid–Solid Interfaces

Catalysis at liquid-solid interfaces is profoundly influenced by the interfacial solvent structure, which affects catalytic activity, selectivity, and reaction pathways. This perspective discusses state-of-the-art multiscale modeling methods that integrate quantum mechanics and molecular mechanics approaches to apply explicit solvent molecules to capture these interfacial phenomena. Specifically, the construction of multiscale models, the importance of capturing the interfacial solvent structure, and the computational strategies used to achieve this are explored, and the challenges in balancing chemical accuracy with computational expense are highlighted. Additionally, this perspective addresses the limitations of current methods. Opportunities for integrating machine learning are proposed. Here, by advancing the efficiency and user friendliness of multiscale modeling, it is argued that deeper insights into heterogeneous catalysis in liquid phases can be provided, which will ultimately contribute to the development of more efficient catalytic processes.

Ab initio molecular dynamics↗
DOE OSTI2020

Vaporizable endoskeletal droplets via tunable interfacial melting transitions

Liquid emulsion droplet evaporation is of importance for various sensing and imaging applications. The liquid-to-gas phase transformation is typically triggered thermally or acoustically by low–boiling point liquids, or by inclusion of solid structures that pin the vapor/liquid contact line to facilitate heterogeneous nucleation. However, these approaches lack precise tunability in vaporization behavior. Here, we describe a previously unused approach to control vaporization behavior through an endoskeleton that can melt and blend into the liquid core to either enhance or disrupt cohesive intermolecular forces. This effect is demonstrated using perfluoropentane (C 5 F 12 ) droplets encapsulating a fluorocarbon (FC) or hydrocarbon (HC) endoskeleton. FC skeletons inhibit vaporization, whereas HC skeletons trigger vaporization near the rotator melting transition. Our findings highlight the importance of skeletal interfacial mixing for initiating droplet vaporization. Tuning molecular interactions between the endoskeleton and droplet phase is generalizable for achieving emulsion or other secondary phase transitions, in emulsions.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

High-fidelity topochemical polymerization in single crystals, polycrystals, and solution aggregates

Topochemical polymerization (TCP) emerges as a leading approach for synthesizing single crystalline polymers, but is traditionally restricted to transformations in solid-medium. The complexity in achieving single-crystal-to-single-crystal (SCSC) transformations due to lattice disparities and the untapped potential of performing TCP in a liquid medium with solid-state structural fidelity present unsolved challenges. Herein, by using X-rays as the primary means to overcome crystal disintegration, we reveal the details of SCSC transformation during the TCP of chiral azaquinodimethane (AQM) monomers through in situ crystallographic analysis while spotlighting a rare metastable crystalline phase. Complementary in situ investigations of powders and thin films provide critical insights into the side-chain dependent polymerization kinetics of solid-state reactions. Furthermore, we enable TCP of AQM monomers in a liquid medium via an antisolvent-reinforced aggregated state, yielding polymer nanofibers with high crystallinity akin to that of solid-state. This study testifies high structural precision of TCP performed in different states and media, offering critical insights into the synthesis of processable nanostructured polymers with desired structural integrity.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

New examples of ferroelectric nematic materials showing evidence for the antiferroelectric smectic-Z phase

Abstract We present a new ferroelectric nematic material, 4-((4′-((trans)-5-ethyloxan-2-yl)-2′,3,5,6′-tetrafluoro-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)difluoromethoxy)-2,6-difluorobenzonitrile (AUUQU-2-N) and its higher homologues, the molecular structures of which include fluorinated building blocks, an oxane ring, and a terminal cyano group, all contributing to a large molecular dipole moment of about 12.5 D. We observed that AUUQU-2-N has three distinct liquid crystal phases, two of which were found to be polar phases with a spontaneous electric polarization P s of up to 6 µC cm –2 . The highest temperature phase is a common enantiotropic nematic (N) exhibiting only field-induced polarization. The lowest-temperature, monotropic phase proved to be a new example of the ferroelectric nematic phase (N F ), evidenced by a single-peak polarization reversal current response, a giant imaginary dielectric permittivity on the order of 10 3 , and the absence of any smectic layer X-ray diffraction peaks. The ordinary nematic phase N and the ferroelectric nematic phase N F are separated by an antiferroelectric liquid crystal phase which has low permittivity and a polarization reversal current exhibiting a characteristic double-peak response. In the polarizing light microscope, this antiferroelectric phase shows characteristic zig-zag defects, evidence of a layered structure. These observations suggest that this is another example of the recently discovered smectic Z A (SmZ A ) phase, having smectic layers with the molecular director parallel to the layer planes. The diffraction peaks from the smectic layering have not been observed to date but detailed 2D X-ray studies indicate the presence of additional short-range structures including smectic C-type correlations in all three phases—N, SmZ A and N F —which may shed new light on the understanding of polar and antipolar order in these phases.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Response of fs-Laser-Irradiated Diamond by Ultrafast Electron Diffraction

Structural details of the proposed solid–liquid phase transition of carbon have remained elusive, despite years of study. While it is theorized that novel carbon materials form from a liquid precursor, experimental studies have lacked the temporal and spatial resolution necessary to fully characterize the purported liquid state. Here, in this work, we utilize megaelectronvolt-ultrafast electron diffraction (MeV-UED) to study laser irradiated submicron diamond thin films in a pump–probe scheme with picosecond time resolution to visualize potential structural changes of excited diamond. We probe the structure of diamond using a combination of fluences (13, 40 J/cm 2 ) and time delays (10, 25, 100 ps), but observe negligible changes in the static diffraction pattern of diamond and an overall decrease in diffraction intensity up to 100 ps after the excitation pulse. We thus conclude that no appreciable amount of liquid or graphitized carbon is present and highlight the structural resilience of bulk diamond to intense 800 nm ultrafast laser pulses.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2026

Lattice-scale variations in viscosity are correlated with solution structure at mineral-water interfaces

At solid-liquid interfaces, the viscosity increases markedly from the bulk due to the collective interactions of ions and water molecules, influencing phenomena relevant to nanofluidics, colloidal dynamics, and electrochemistry. Here, in this study, we investigated dissipative forces at the boehmite-water interface using 3D atomic force microscopy. We observed an increase in interfacial solution viscosity, η, by 10-100-fold as the nanoprobe approached the surface in normal direction, with up to four oscillatory features showing average peaks of η/η bulk = 44-71. Moreover, the viscosity showed sub-nanometer variations within 0.5 nm from the interface, templated by the underlying crystal lattice and correlated with the interfacial solution structure. Beyond a near-wall region of approximately 1.2 nm, the dissipative response was comparable to that in bulk solution. Molecular dynamics simulations, along with statistical mechanical analyses, provided details on hydrodynamic structures near the interface. Specifically, the lattice-dependent dissipative responses are correlated with extensive hydrogen bonding by interfacial water molecules, which increased friction, particularly along the [001] direction. These results demonstrate how solution viscosity at mineral-water interfaces is anisotropic and correlated with the local solution structure, providing insights into the dynamics of nanocrystal attachment.

Viscosity↗
DOE OSTI2021

Solvent Effects on Catalytic Reactions and Related Phenomena at Liquid-Solid Interfaces

Catalytic reactions involve the direct interaction of reactants, intermediates and products with the catalyst surface. We not only need to control the atomic structure and electronic properties of the active site, but also explore the multiple molecular interactions that occur beyond the active site; they play an essential role in altering the binding and reactivity of surface species. In liquid-phase catalysis, solvents provide additional degrees of freedom in the design of the catalytic process for desirable activity and selectivity. Here, the multi-faceted effects of solvents have a profound impact on the catalyst performance by restricting the mass transfer to the site, tuning the chemical potential of the surface species, competing for active sites, stabilizing the initial and transition states, and causing mechanistic changes by participating in the kinetically relevant elementary steps. This review addresses the different aspects of solvent effects, using a few prototype solid-liquid interfaces to illustrate these fundamental features. Recent experimental and computational studies that provide new insight at the molecular level are examined. Solvent structures in the proximity of the catalyst surface are discussed along with their influence in molecular binding and reaction at the solid-liquid interfaces. Furthermore, opportunities to alter such a solid-liquid interaction by tuning the wettability of the catalyst surfaces are explored.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2020

An isolated water droplet in the aqueous solution of a supramolecular tetrahedral cage

Water under nanoconfinement at ambient conditions has exhibited low-dimensional ice formation and liquid–solid phase transitions, but with structural and dynamical signatures that map onto known regions of water’s phase diagram. Using terahertz (THz) absorption spectroscopy and ab initio molecular dynamics, we have investigated the ambient water confined in a supramolecular tetrahedral assembly, and determined that a dynamically distinct network of 9 ± 1 water molecules is present within the nanocavity of the host. The low-frequency absorption spectrum and theoretical analysis of the water in the Ga 4 L 6 12– host demonstrate that the structure and dynamics of the encapsulated droplet is distinct from any known phase of water. A further inference is that the release of the highly unusual encapsulated water droplet creates a strong thermodynamic driver for the high-affinity binding of guests in aqueous solution for the Ga 4 L 6 12– supramolecular construct.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Ion Correlations Decrease Particle Aggregation Rate by Increasing Hydration Forces at Interfaces

The connection between solution structure, particle forces, and emergent phenomena at solid–liquid interfaces remains ambiguous. In this case study on boehmite aggregation, we established a connection between interfacial solution structure, emerging hydration forces between two approaching particles, and the resulting structure and kinetics of particle aggregation. In contrast to expectations from continuum-based theories, we observed a nonmonotonic dependence of the aggregation rate on the concentration of sodium chloride, nitrate, or nitrite, decreasing by 15-fold in 4 molal compared to 1 molal solutions. These results are accompanied by an increase in repulsive hydration forces and interfacial oscillatory features from 0.27–0.31 nm in 0.01 molal to 0.38–0.52 nm in 2 molal. Moreover, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations indicated that these changes correspond to enhanced ion correlations near the interface and produced loosely bound aggregates that retain electrolyte between the particles. In conclusion, we anticipate that these results will enable the prediction of particle aggregation, attachment, and assembly, with broad relevance to interfacial phenomena.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

DNA-assembled superconducting 3D nanoscale architectures

Studies of nanoscale superconducting structures have revealed various physical phenomena and led to the development of a wide range of applications. Most of these studies concentrated on one- and two-dimensional structures due to the lack of approaches for creation of fully engineered three-dimensional (3D) nanostructures. Here, we present a ‘bottom-up’ method to create 3D superconducting nanostructures with prescribed multiscale organization using DNA-based self-assembly methods. We assemble 3D DNA superlattices from octahedral DNA frames with incorporated nanoparticles, through connecting frames at their vertices, which result in cubic superlattices with a 48 nm unit cell. The superconductive superlattice is formed by converting a DNA superlattice first into highly-structured 3D silica scaffold, to turn it from a soft and liquid-environment dependent macromolecular construction into a solid structure, following by its coating with superconducting niobium (Nb). Through low-temperature electrical characterization we demonstrate that this process creates 3D arrays of Josephson junctions. This approach may be utilized in development of a variety of applications such as 3D Superconducting Quantum interference Devices (SQUIDs) for measurement of the magnetic field vector, highly sensitive Superconducting Quantum Interference Filters (SQIFs), and parametric amplifiers for quantum information systems.

77 NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Phase behaviours of superionic water at planetary conditions

Most water in the Universe may be superionic, and its thermodynamic and transport properties are crucial for planetary science but difficult to probe experimentally or theoretically. We use machine learning and free-energy methods to overcome the limitations of quantum mechanical simulations and characterize hydrogen diffusion, superionic transitions and phase behaviours of water at extreme conditions. Furthermore, we predict that close-packed superionic phases, which have a fraction of mixed stacking for finite systems, are stable over a wide temperature and pressure range, whereas a body-centred cubic superionic phase is only thermodynamically stable in a small window but is kinetically favoured. Our phase boundaries, which are consistent with existing—albeit scarce—experimental observations, help resolve the fractions of insulating ice, different superionic phases and liquid water inside ice giants.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Phonon gas model for thermal conductivity of dense, strongly interacting liquids

Developing predictive thermal property models for liquids based on microscopic principles has been elusive. The difficulty is that liquids have gas-like and solid-like attributes that are at odds when considering the frameworks of microscopic models: Models for gases are simple due to randomness and low density, whereas models for crystalline solids rely on symmetry and long-range order for easier calculation. The short-range order in liquids does, however, provide structure to neighboring molecules similar to amorphous solids, and there have been recent advances indicating that collective vibrational modes store heat in liquids. Models combining Debye approximations from solid-state physics and Frenkel’s theory of liquids can accurately predict the heat capacity of liquids. Phonon-like dispersions in liquids have also been widely observed in neutron scattering experiments. These developments motivate us to propose a model where high-frequency vibrational modes, which travel at the speed of sound and have a mean free path on the order of the average intermolecular distance, conduct heat in liquids. We use this liquid phonon gas model to calculate the thermal conductivity of liquids with varying intermolecular interaction energies from strongest to weakest—Coulomb, hydrogen-bonding, Keesom, and London dispersion energy. Generally, the model is more accurate as the intermolecular interaction energy and density of liquids increase. The calculated thermal conductivity of Coulombic-bound molten sodium nitrate and hydrogen-bonded water is within 1.46% and 2.98% of the experimentally measured values, respectively, across their entire temperature ranges. Further modal analysis of the velocity and the mean free path of collective vibrations could establish the liquid phonon gas model as an accurate model for weakly interacting liquids as well.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2019

Coordination changes in liquid tin under shock compression determined using in situ femtosecond x-ray diffraction

Little is known regarding the liquid structure of materials compressed to extreme conditions, and even less is known about liquid structures undergoing rapid compression on nanosecond timescales. Here, we report on liquid structure factor and radial distribution function measurements of tin shock compressed to 84(19) GPa. High-quality, femtosecond x-ray diffraction measurements at the Linac Coherent Light Source were used to extract the liquid diffuse scattering signal. From the radial distribution function, we find that the structural evolution of the liquid with increasing pressure mimics the evolution of the solid phase. With increasing pressure, we find that the liquid structure evolves from a complex structure, with a low coordination number, to a simple liquid structure with a coordination number of ~12. We provide a pathway for future experiments to study liquids at elevated pressures using high-energy lasers to shock compress materials beyond the reach of static diamond anvil cell techniques.

X-ray diffraction↗