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DOE OSTI2026

Cyote-attack Chain Estimator

Attack Chain Estimator (ACE) Application Overview The Attack Chain Estimator (ACE) Application is a sophisticated tool designed for the ingestion, classification, sequencing, and enrichment of cybersecurity threat reports. This application leverages advanced machine learning models and extensive historical data to provide comprehensive insights into cyber threats, specifically targeting Industrial Control Systems (ICS). Purpose The primary functions of the ACE Application include: Ingestion of Cybersecurity Threat Reporting: Capable of ingesting text-based threat reports in markdown or text file format. Supports ingestion of structured data from other sources in STIX/JSON format. Classification of Report’s Text-Based Events: Utilizes a DeBERTa classifier, specifically trained on cybersecurity data, to map the events to MITRE ATT&CK for ICS Tactics and Techniques. Classification is performed using multiple Jupyter notebooks and machine learning workflows hosted as FastAPI microservices: regex_data deberta_base_35_train_hft_classifier_mlflow.ipynb hft_regex_classifier_mlflow.ipynb param_train_hft_classifier_mlflow.ipynb regex_tactic_tech.ipynb Ordering of Tactics, Techniques, and Observable Events: Sequences the identified tactics, techniques, and events to form a coherent attack chain. Enrichment with Historical Attack Chain Details: Enhances the attack chain with details from historical attacks using a Markov model developed from CyOTE Precursor Analysis Report data. The Markov model is available as a FastAPI endpoint for seamless integration. Enrichment with Adversary Emulation Capabilities Data: Integrates adversary emulation capabilities data using MITRE Caldera for OT adversary abilities UUIDs. Export of Output Files: Provides options to export the enriched attack chain in JSON or CSV formats. Routing of Output to Other Applications: Facilitates routing of output to various platforms and applications, including: Threat Intelligence Platforms COREII Scout for Threat Intelligence Analysis COREII Modeling and Simulation for Adversary Emulation Technical Description The ACE Application is an advanced cybersecurity tool designed to provide detailed threat analysis and sequence generation. It is built on a robust architecture that integrates natural language processing, machine learning, and historical data modeling. Key Components: Data Ingestion Module: Handles the input of threat reports and data from various formats, ensuring flexibility in data sources. Classification Engine: Employs DeBERTa-based classifiers hosted as FastAPI microservices to analyze and classify threat report events in accordance with the MITRE ATT&CK framework for ICS. Sequence Generator: Orders the classified events into a logical attack chain, providing clear insight into the sequence of tactics and techniques used in the threat. Enrichment Engine: Integrates historical data and adversary emulation capabilities to enhance the attack chain with valuable context and additional details. The historical data enrichment is powered by a Markov model, which is available as a FastAPI endpoint. Export and Routing Module: Facilitates the export of the enriched attack chain in multiple formats and routes the output to designated applications for further analysis or emulation.

Paul, Tony [Idaho National Laboratory (INL), Idaho↗
DOE OSTI2022

Contentious narratives and disinformation about nuclear weapons in strategic deterrence and competition: A SOCOM perspective. Part of Section: United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) in Emerging Strategic & Geopolitical Challenges: Operational Implications for US Combatant Commands

Russia’s “special military operation” in Ukraine demonstrates the challenge for strategic deterrence and competition of countering contentious narratives and disinformation about weapons of mass destruction (WMD) during conventional regional wars against a nucleararmed adversary. Moscow uses both tailored, contentious narratives and targeted disinformation about WMD in Ukraine to influence and disrupt local and global perceptions in support of its deterrence and competition objectives vis-à-vis the United States and NATO. Since December 2021, Moscow has made a focal point of chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons in its efforts to establish a permissive environment for its military buildup on the border with Ukraine and then its military intervention. These information tactics also demonstrate an opportunity for US Special Operations Forces (SOF). They are a case study for considering how SOF can contribute to strategic deterrence and competition objectives, specifically countering adversary gray-zone information efforts to alter regional security orders.1 Such a role is in line with the 2022 Special Operations Forces Vision and Strategy, which provides a framework for the evolution of SOF into “a force capable of creating strategic, asymmetric advantages for the nation as a key contributor of integrated deterrence” (United States Special Operations Command, 2022). This paper briefly examines this strategic challenge and SOF opportunity, focusing narrowly on the distinction between contentious narratives and disinformation about nuclear weapons and the role of SOF in countering these gray-zone information tactics. The nuclear dimension of Moscow’s contentious narratives and disinformation in the “special military operation” is of particular interest because it demonstrates the distinction between strategic efforts to influence and disrupt local and global perceptions in Moscow’s favor. This distinction between influence and disruption is less clear with Russia’s contentious narratives and disinformation about chemical and biological weapons in Ukraine, as disinformation about these two types of WMD appears to overwhelm contentious narratives. We believe this distinction is useful for policymakers and warfighters responsible for countering gray-zone information tactics because it provides a framework for crafting tailored responses to contentious narratives and disinformation about nuclear weapons and other WMD. The chapter concludes with a discussion of efforts that could be undertaken by SOF in cooperation with other relevant stakeholders to address this aspect of adversary gray-zone information tactics.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Requirements and Recommendations for a Physical Attack Characterization Framework

This study seeks to identify existing frameworks or develop requirements and recommendations for a new framework that can consistently characterize physical attacks, analogous to MITRE ATT&CK®. MITRE ATT&CK is widely used across government, research organizations, and the cyber security community to characterize cyber attack tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTPs) in a consistent and commonly understood manner. While physical attack taxonomies, methodologies, and other tools for evaluating physical security do exist, many are sector and/or facility-type specific—and therefore not able to provide comparable scenarios across sectors—or are more focused on security assessment instead of the characterization of attacks themselves. A MITRE ATT&CK analog for physical attacks on critical infrastructure would provide a common language and structure for analysis of physical attacks. Existing attack characterization methodologies do not robustly address cyber-physical security risks. To fully understand a facility’s security needs, it is important to understand the entire vulnerability landscape from both a physical and a cyber perspective. To underscore this need, organizations such as the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) are calling for a coordinated approach to cyber and physical security, which they refer to as cyber and physical security convergence. A physical attack characterization framework that could be used jointly with MITRE ATT&CK would help support a more robust analysis in support of convergence, enabling the consistent characterization of attacks that utilize both cyber and physical tactics and techniques. This could provide analysts and stakeholders with a clearer understanding of how security mitigations deployed in the physical realm impact security risks in the cyber realm, and vice versa. In this study, the project team evaluates existing physical security taxonomies and methodologies to assess whether an existing method can be used to create a “physical half” of MITRE ATT&CK. This study then provides requirements and recommendations for a framework that can leverage aspects of existing methodologies. The goal of the final framework is for it to be widely adopted and referenced, regardless of critical infrastructure sector, facility type, or facility components. This study also identifies applicable use cases for when and how a framework could be applied across the various critical infrastructure sectors for a variety of attack types or motivations. Through a literature review of existing security-focused methodologies and taxonomies, engagement with relative stakeholders, evaluation of potential physical attack framework use cases, and subsequent identification of requirements, this study identified the following key findings and recommendations: There is a need for a new physical attack characterization framework; A physical attack framework should be interoperable with the MITRE ATT&CK framework; A physical attack framework should be broadly applicable, but with detailed tactics, techniques, and procedures that encompass the entire attack path; A physical attack framework should be based on observed or feasible events; A physical attack framework should adapt features from existing methodologies, frameworks, and taxonomies; A physical attack framework should be owned, overseen, and maintained by one organization.

45 MILITARY TECHNOLOGY, WEAPONRY, AND NATIONAL DEF↗
DOE OSTI2025

Modeling Cyber Supply Chain Incidents with Multilayered Graph Motifs

As noted within the literature, supply chain includes people and organizations---manufacturers, integrators, and third-party vendors---that are involved in one or more stages of a product lifecycle. Since supply chains, by definition, include organizations and people, supply chain risk management activities must consider dependencies between an organization's business processes and third-party resources. Just as adversarial tactics can be implemented via techniques implemented via networked computer systems, so can such tactics be expressed via legal business relationships. A cyber incident may have an exponential impact downstream, for example, by leveraging a product's distribution channel (e.g. malicious updates in SolarWinds, buggy updates in CrowdStrike). Similarly, legitimate and legal business relationships also affect the attack surface exposure of systems, enabling long-term persistence and/or unknown impacts to product quality that are hard to detect. This paper catalogs several recent digital supply chain incidents and applies a multilayered network formalism to develop structural indicators (graph motifs) that reflect potentially-adversarial behavior. Finally, we compare and contrast the characteristics of adversarial tactics (e.g. Loss of Availability, Data Collection) that leverage cyber-physical dependencies to those that leverage legal organizational relationships.

97 - MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2025

A Safe Response to Renewable Energy Hazards

The International Association of Fire Fighters (IAFF) and Underwriters Laboratories, LLC (UL) in conjunction with UL Solutions initiated a joint project in 2022 under an agreement with the United States Department of Energy-Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (DOE-EERE). This project focused on two separate and important initiatives related to energy efficiency in residential buildings. Initiative 1: Fire Performance on Energy Efficient Exterior Walls. Initiative 2: Firefighting Tactics in Residential Properties with Building Energy Storage Systems (BESS). The project’s first initiative addresses concerns surrounding new technologies with enhanced, energy-efficient exterior walls installed on residential properties. The concerns of fire rapidly traveling vertically up the exterior of these walls were examined. This addressed a growing concern from the first responder community that many times, the fires on the exterior of residential buildings have already evolved into an attic fire by the time of arrival – making it problematic to address the fire scenario. The test plan for Initiative 1 incorporated a modified version of an American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) test method, ASTM E2707, Standard Test Method for Determining Fire Penetration of Exterior Wall Assemblies Using a Direct Flame Impingement Exposure, as the foundation of the research. The test method involved a wall structure intended to represent retrofit construction to evaluate how fire would spread vertically or laterally. The second aspect of the UL-IAFF Project focuses on the fire service response to Residential Battery Energy Storage System (RBESS) incidents. These simulation tests were constructed in the large-scale fire test facility at UL Solutions’ Northbrook, IL campus. A baseline test was conducted that involved a test structure with no batteries—shelving units populated with standardized commodities, representing a typical garage with cellulosic and plastic contents. Three additional tests have been conducted to generate data with the contribution of energy storage system (ESS) batteries to compare fire and explosion hazards against the baseline test. Through this work, fire service tactical considerations can be explored. From the data, the team can determine 1) the visual indicators of a residential fire that has involved an RBESS (or, potentially, other large batteries) and 2) the impact of fire service-initiated ventilation of the structure on the fire conditions and explosion risks.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2022

Effect of Macro- and Microstructures on Catalytic Hydrogenolysis of Polyolefins

Here, polyethylenes of varying molecular weight and branch density, as well as polypropylenes of varying molecular weight and tacticity, were catalytically converted to lower-molecular-weight liquid products to showcase how these various properties in a mixed waste plastic stream could affect the final product. A Pt nanoparticle on a strontium titanate nanocuboid (Pt/STO) catalyst was used under solvent-free conditions in the presence of 170 psi of H 2 at 300 °C for hydrogenolysis. The initial molecular weight of polyethylene was found to have a moderate effect on the yield to the final product (ranging from 55 wt% for M n ~ 7600 Da to 67 wt% for M n ~ 50,950 Da). The microstructure, defined as the length and density of branches in a polymer, of higher-molecular-weight polymers was the dominant factor in determining the yield (ranging from 67 wt% for M n ~ 50,950 Da for linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) with C 2 branches to 97 wt% for M n ~ 38,850 Da for LLDPE with C 6 branches). The same products (M n = C 29 –C 46 , Ð = 1.1–1.6) and distribution of undesired light gases (C 1 –C 4 ≈ 90 mol%, C 5 –C 8 ≈ 10 mol%) are obtained from conversions of PE of varying molecular weight. The tacticity of polypropylene at a given molecular weight had a significant effect on the molecular weight of the final product, while not strongly affecting conversion. Hydrogenolysis of isotactic polypropylene (iPP) produced ≈C 18 with a wider polydispersity (Ð ~ 1.4) compared to the narrow ≈C 64 (Ð ~ 1.0) and ≈C 54 (Ð ~ 1.0) products from atactic (aPP) and syndiotactic (sPP) polypropylene, respectively. The stereochemistry of the methyl groups dictates the shape and structure of the polymer in the melt, which in turn affects how the hydrocarbon chain interacts with the catalyst surface, thereby impacting the number of C–C scissions. These results show how various characteristics such as the molecular weight and structure of a waste plastic stream could affect the final product.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2026

Ablating Pellets for Areal Density Symmetry Control in Indirectly Driven Inertial Confinement Fusion Target Designs

Asymmetry of the compressed fusion fuel configuration, as characterized by a variation in areal density, in inertial confinement fusion (ICF) implosions is a known performance limitation. While ignition has been achieved on the National Ignition Facility (NIF), implosion symmetry was not perfect, and subsequent experiments that have extended fusion performance still struggle with symmetry control and would, in principle, perform much better if the areal density uniformity of the fuel was improved by eliminating thin regions in the DT (Deuterium-Tritium) fuel that develop by the time of peak compression. In indirect drive (IDD), altering the time-dependent laser cone fraction and cross-beam energy transfer are the usual tactics for controlling implosion asymmetry in IDD target designs, but it may be that those tools have been pushed to their limits. In this Letter, we present a new tactic for controlling the implosion using satellite ablating pellets to manipulate the time-dependent x-ray field around an ICF capsule. In theory and in simulations the action of these pellets is quite effective at reducing the swing of x-ray drive from waist hot to pole hot, thus achieving a more one-dimensional fuel configuration at peak compression. Simulations show that a factor of ∼2 in yield performance can be obtained via this technique, when applied to past record implosions on the NIF. As a result, some speculative alternate uses of the proposed target concept are also mentioned in the conclusion of this Letter.

Implosion symmetry↗
DOE OSTI2023

Assessment of the Distributed Ledger Technology for Energy Sector Industrial and Operational Applications Using the MITRE ATT&CK® ICS Matrix

In recent times, Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) has gained significant attention for its potential application in the energy sector. Utilizing blockchain and DLT has demonstrated the ability to enhance the resilience of the electric infrastructure, which will support a more flexible infrastructure and advance grid modernization. However, the deployment of these technologies increases the overall attack surface. The MITRE ATT&CK® matrices have been developed to document an adversary’s tactics and techniques based on real-world observations. The MITRE ATT&CK® matrices provide a common taxonomy for offense and defense and have become a valuable conceptual tool across multiple cybersecurity disciplines for conveying threat intelligence, performing testing through red teaming or adversary emulation, and enhancing network and system defenses against intrusions. The MITRE ATT&CK® for Industrial Control Systems (ICS) matrix was created to provide knowledge about adversary behavior in the ICS technology domain. This study analyzes the relevance of various tactics and techniques across a seven-layer DLT engineering and cybersecurity stack, known as the DLT stack, designed by the Cybersecurity Taskforce under IEEE P2418.5 - Standard for Blockchain in Energy working group sponsored by Power and Energy Systems - Smart Buildings, Loads and Customer Systems (PES/SBLC) Technical Committee. Additionally, this paper identifies specific mitigation strategies tailored to the energy ICS environment

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2025

Identifying Adversarial Cyber-Activity in Operational Technology Environments Using Bayesian Networks

Critical infrastructure and other operational technology (OT) environments face increasing cybersecurity risks from adversarial behavior. This paper describes the development of a risk model using a Bayesian network to enhance the comprehension of observable cyber events caused by malicious activity in OT environments. The core of the Bayesian network is a process model that describes the stages of adversary behavior. The remainder of the model is based on the MITRE ATT&CK® for Industrial Control Systems (ICS) taxonomy, which includes tactics and techniques that may be used by the adversary. The observables provide evidence for adversary behavior through the intermediary technique and tactic nodes. One challenge in constructing this model is a lack of open-source data from cyber-attacks on OT systems. This paper discusses learning from limited data, the elicitation of expert opinion to construct the conditional probability tables when data is scarce, and the refinement of the most difficult conditional probabilities tables using several forms of sensitivity analyses. Finally, the Bayesian network is demonstrated using two historical case studies: the DarkSide ransomware attack on the Colonial Pipeline and the destructive cyberattack targeting the ThyssenKrupp blast furnace. Index Terms—Cybersecurity, industrial control systems, operational technology

97 - MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2024

Toward improved thermal exposure classes for structural firefighters

In the early 1970s, there was an initial effort to quantify the conditions under which firefighters are expected to perform. Harvey Utech led this endeavor by defining three levels of thermal exposure—routine, ordinary, and emergency—which were characterized by combining a range of air temperatures and radiative heat fluxes. In the last half-century, there has been a concerted scientific effort to further understand the conditions to which firefighters are exposed during structural firefighting. Research has been conducted on the resiliency of turnout gear and facepiece lenses, the thermal conditions observed during a structure fire, and the impact of firefighter tactics such as ventilation and suppression. The authors synthesize the results from these research areas to update the original thermal classifications to six categories of exposure—routine, Ordinary I, Ordinary II, Emergency I, Emergency II, and Emergency III—which are more representative of the operating environment and protective equipment thresholds that firefighters should be aware of during firefighting operations and tactical decision-making.

Weinschenk, Craig↗
DOE OSTI2024

Metabolic Costs of Walking with Weighted Vests

ABSTRACT Introduction The US Army Load Carriage Decision Aid (LCDA) metabolic model is used by militaries across the globe and is intended to predict physiological responses, specifically metabolic costs, in a wide range of dismounted warfighter operations. However, the LCDA has yet to be adapted for vest-borne load carriage, which is commonplace in tactical populations, and differs in energetic costs to backpacking and other forms of load carriage. Purpose The purpose of this study is to develop and validate a metabolic model term that accurately estimates the effect of weighted vest loads on standing and walking metabolic rate for military mission-planning and general applications. Methods Twenty healthy, physically active military-age adults (4 women, 16 men; age, 26 ± 8 yr old; height, 1.74 ± 0.09 m; body mass, 81 ± 16 kg) walked for 6 to 21 min with four levels of weighted vest loading (0 to 66% body mass) at up to 11 treadmill speeds (0.45 to 1.97 m·s −1 ). Using indirect calorimetry measurements, we derived a new model term for estimating metabolic rate when carrying vest-borne loads. Model estimates were evaluated internally byk-fold cross-validation and externally against 12 reference datasets (264 total participants). We tested if the 90% confidence interval of the mean paired difference was within equivalence limits equal to 10% of the measured walking metabolic rate. Estimation accuracy, precision, and level of agreement were also evaluated by the bias, standard deviation of paired differences, and concordance correlation coefficient (CCC), respectively. Results Metabolic rate estimates using the new weighted vest term were statistically equivalent (P< 0.01) to measured values in the current study (bias, −0.01 ± 0.54 W·kg −1 ; CCC, 0.973) as well as from the 12 reference datasets (bias, −0.16 ± 0.59 W·kg −1 ; CCC, 0.963). Conclusions The updated LCDA metabolic model calculates accurate predictions of metabolic rate when carrying heavy backpack and vest-borne loads. Tactical populations and recreational athletes that train with weighted vests can confidently use the simplified LCDA metabolic calculator provided as Supplemental Digital Content to estimate metabolic rates for work/rest guidance, training periodization, and nutritional interventions.

Sport Sciences↗
DOE OSTI2021

SD-WAN Evaluation Criteria for a Defense Information Systems Network Expeditionary Customer Edge

The Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) has identified a service provision gap midway between the capacity and capability of a Defense Information Systems Network (DISN) transport Edge Points of Presence (POP) and U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) Enterprise Classified Travel Kit (DECTK). Some deployed force 100-user Tactical Operations Centers are in field locations far removed from the DISN transport core, in challenging environmental conditions with limitations on space, weight, power, and cooling for network equipment. As part of a multi-phase project, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) will gather and analyze requirements, design, develop, prototype, and test a miniaturized and ruggedized DISN Customer Edge POP scaled to support approximately 100 users in a field Tactical Operations Center. An Expeditionary Customer Edge (ECE) will be more suitable for field deployment than a DISN transport Edge POP, using ruggedized hardware and network function virtualization (NFV) to operate in challenging field environmental conditions, plus reduce weight, power, and cooling requirements. A key enabling technology for ECE is Software Defined Wide Area Networking (SD-WAN). This document provides: • A brief overview of SD-WAN use cases and how they apply to ECE • How SD-WAN technology compares to existing networks like DISN that use Optical Transport Networking (OTN) and Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) • SD-WAN functional requirements relevant to ECE • A description of an ECE Virtual Prototype, including simulated wide area network paths and a DISN-representative implementation of MPLS, in Cisco Modeling Labs • Detailed network flow walkthroughs • Evaluation criteria based on ECE-relevant SD-WAN functional requirements Finally, an appendix provides an informal evaluation of Speedify—a commercial retail Virtual Private Network service—against the ECE SD-WAN evaluation criteria.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2022

Operation Upshot-Knothole

A thundering boom and sheet of fire announced a dramatic, once in a lifetime event – the firing of a nuclear projectile from a 280 mm cannon. Travelling seven miles downrange, the projectile detonated 500 feet over the Nevada Test Site’s Frenchman Flat with a force of fifteen kilotons. Although the test was successful, the massive cannon, designed for tactical battlefield use, had a critical flaw. It was too large and cumbersome for mobile combat. The cannon test, codenamed Grable, was part of Operation Upshot-Knothole, the fourth test series conducted in Nevada. Beginning with the Annie test on March 17, 1953, and concluding with the Climax test on June 4th, the Operation consisted of three airdrops, seven tower detonations, and the one artillery shot. As with previous Nevada tests, the demarcation between the weapon development series, Upshot, and the DOD effects tests, Knothole, was blurred. All eleven tests generated data in support of weapon development as well as tactical battlefield applications. During Upshot-Knothole, the University of California Radiation Laboratory (UCRL), conducted its first ever tests, Ruth and Ray. Although neither test was successful, these failures, along with another a year later at Operation Castle, provided the new laboratory with design data leading to future successful tests. The Federal Civil Defense Administration (FCDA) participated in a test series with the general goal of preparing for societal recovery from a nuclear attack. Known as Operation Doorstep, the FCDA’s experiments evaluated the effects of a nuclear attack on food supplies, housing and urban structures, and even a copse of trees transplanted from nearby Mt. Charleston. A contingent of the press witnessed test Annie from an outcropping of rocks, subsequently named News Nob. The presence of the news media, along with the FCDA’s participation, marked a fundamental change in the Nevada test program - a change that that now included the general populace, whose survival was, of course, the rationale for testing. The Department of Defense continued and expanded its Desert Rock exercises of troop exercises, helicopter operations, and evaluation of blast damage to military aircraft, tanks, and guns. Annie, Nancy, Badger, Simon, Encore, and Grable involved larger numbers of personnel than the other five shots. Below is an edited and condensed account of Desert Rock activities compiled by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency.

45 MILITARY TECHNOLOGY, WEAPONRY, AND NATIONAL DEF↗
DOE OSTI2022

Developing nanometer scale, atomically precise metallo-catalysts with Molecular Lego

We propose to create atomically precise, highly robust, nanometer scale macromolecules that organize biomimetic metal binding groups in designed three-dimensional pockets to accelerate specific polymerization reactions. These atomically precise catalysts will create atomically precise polymers with improved mechanical and environmental properties from renewable building blocks. We seek to create and study nanometer scale catalysts that mimic metallo-enzymes in their activity and selectivity because these larger catalysts will be able to make more extensive non-covalent contacts with the transition state of the growing polymer. These catalysts will have extended lifetimes because they will better protect the metals and higher activity because additional reactive groups can be brought in close contact with the active site to enhance reactivity. They will be far more tolerant to extremes of temperature and will not denature in non-aqueous solvents because they are held together by multiple, strong, covalent bonds. Our approach to catalysts could be used to develop catalysts to replace noble metal-based catalysts when targeting other reactions, because the geometry of the active site enforced by the Molecular Lego scaffolding will access new reactivity, mimicking how nature uses earth abundant metals for much of its catalysis. We will initially target Lewis acid-based catalysts that assemble aliphatic polyesters with improved stereoselectivity, tacticity and complex alternation of monomers. Aliphatic polyesters have received growing attention as attractive, environmentally benign, and sustainable alternatives to polymers developed from petroleum feedstocks. Aliphatic polyesters are environmentally friendly because they undergo facile hydrolytic degradation to benign products, and they have excellent properties and high biocompatibility. We will assemble these catalysts using unique “Spiroligomers” (aka Molecular Lego) chemistry developed in the Schafmeister group combined with the organometallic chemistry expertise of the Dobereiner group. Polymers are an attractive synthetic target of nanoscale atomically precise catalysts because their resulting structure, stereochemistry and tacticity has profound impact on their properties (crystalline vs amorphous) and provides a readout of the catalytic mechanism. Polymer synthesis also serves as an example of “atomically precise manufacturing” where atomically precise nanoscale catalysts construct polymers with atomic precision at increasing length scales.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2024

Retrieval Augmented Generation for Robust Cyber Defense

In cybersecurity, the ability to efficiently analyze and respond to vulnerabilities, weaknesses, attack patterns, and threat tactics is critical for effective defense strategies. With the increasing complexity and volume of cybersecurity data, traditional methods of querying and retrieving information are often inadequate. To address this challenge, we implemented Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) systems—CyRAG and GraphCyRAG—that integrate large language models (LLMs) with both structured data from relational databases and knowledge graphs such as Neo4j. CyRAG is designed to handle structured data, focusing on CVE (Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures) and CWE (Common Weakness Enumeration) entities to generate accurate and context-rich responses. In contrast, GraphCyRAG leverages Neo4j knowledge graphs to retrieve interconnected information from CVE, CWE, CAPEC (Common Attack Pattern Enumeration and Classification), and ATT&CK (Adversarial Tactics, Techniques, and Common Knowledge) datasets. By utilizing Neo4j’s graph-based framework, GraphCyRAG enables deeper traversal of relationships between vulnerabilities and attack patterns, providing cybersecurity analysts with more comprehensive insights into potential attack vectors and mitigation strategies. Our preliminary results demonstrate that integrating knowledge graphs with RAG significantly enhances both the accuracy and depth of threat analysis, allowing for the retrieval of dynamic, real-time data and the generation of contextually aware responses. This approach helps analysts uncover hidden relationships between cyber entities, predict exploit paths, and prioritize mitigation efforts effectively. The integration of RAG with cybersecurity knowledge graphs represents a significant advancement in cybersecurity threat intelligence, enabling more informed decision-making and stronger defense strategies.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2025

Optimized V1G and V2G Electric Vehicle Fleet Management and Grid Transaction at Marine Corps Air Station Miramar in San Diego, CA

The overall technical goal of the project was to demonstrate an all-electric bi-directional non-tactical fleet at Marine Corps Air Station (MCAS) Miramar that was integrated and controlled with other distributed energy resources (DERs) (i.e., PV, stationary battery, and building loads) to provide resilience to critical electric loads in the event of grid outages, to minimize charging costs, and to provide economic energy resources to electricity markets. In this project, the specific, technical objectives were: 1. Demonstrate that bi-directional electric vehicles can provide critical complementary services to fixed storage batteries in microgrid applications while performing function as non-tactical vehicles. 2. Demonstrate participation of bi-directional (V2G) and unidirectional (V1G) PEVs for demand management and minimization of charging costs. 3. Demonstrate integration of multiple DERs for grid service participation. US Marine Corps Air Station (MCAS) Miramar in San Diego was the site of this electric vehicle-to-microgrid-utility grid test and demonstration project. Existing microgrid assets in this study included (1) a public works building; (2) a 30-kW rooftop photovoltaic (PV) system and (3) a separate 250 kW carport PV system. In this project, six bi-directional V2G vans were located at the MCAS Miramar’s showcase building-scale microgrid to develop and test technical capabilities that V2G can provide in microgrid applications (e.g., cost reduction and resiliency). These resources provided aggregated demand management and simulated participation in current retail DR programs. The vehicles used in this demonstration were selected because they provided functionality that MCAS Miramar needed, 15 passenger transport and facilities work cargo carrying capacity, and bi-directional charging capability that the research project required. All vehicles in this study were manufactured and distributed by VIA Motors, Inc. There were six vehicles total and each was VIA’s VTRUX eREV V2G model, a modified General Motors Chevrolet 2500 2WD van. Three of the vans were configured as passenger vans and the other three were configured as cargo vans. Each van had an on-board bi-direcrtional inverter/charger, Bel Power Solutions model 350INVCHGT150-120-240-8G nominally rated at +/-15 kW. The VIA van’s charging connector follows the J1772 charging protocol. The bi-directional EVSEs demonstrated in this study were manufactured by Coritech, Inc. Each VGI-80-AC charging station enabled enhanced V2G charging capability to a Clipper Creek CS-100 charging module. The enhanced capabilities included ethernet communication following the SEP2.0 protocol with a distributed energy resource function set and an operator screen displaying real-time SOC, voltage, and current. The VGI-80-AC charging stations are classified as level 2 with a maximum current output of 80 A or effectively 19 kW. The VIA van’s onboard charger limited the charging and discharging power to 15 kW in each direction. A control computer was installed in the EWOC and connected to an existing monitor. The V2G control communication network was a completely stand-alone closed system that did not have any connection to any other networks on the base. A cybersecure remote communication connection was created with a cellular modem, firewall hardware, and a virtual private network configuration.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2026

Risks to the DOW Mission From Global Advanced Energy Adoption

Advanced energy technologies have the potential to enhance energy security and resilience; however, they can introduce new vulnerabilities even as they mitigate existing ones. This dichotomy highlights that both action and inaction carry strategic risks in a contested and logistically complex operating environment. Regardless of U.S. civilian or military adoption of such technologies, key allies and adversaries are on adoption paths that will impact the U.S. military at the tactical, operational, and strategic level. The global adoption of advanced energy technologies presents the potential for both positive and negative consequences for U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) missions in the next 10-20 years. Three categories of risk drivers are presented in this analysis: infrastructure-related, adoption-related, and response-related. Each risk type can generate consequences for DOD, including power disruptions, suboptimal DOD mission performance and operational effectiveness, higher costs and shortages for both legacy and advanced energy technologies, and loss of U.S. influence and strategic deterrent value. Specific impacts could include tactical impacts, operational impacts, and strategic impacts. Mitigation strategies could include energy resource and technology planning, cybersecurity, supply chain resilience, workforce development, exercises and simulations, investments in commercialized technology, operational testing and pilot programs, research into emerging technologies, partnerships and working groups, common standards, budget planning, and repurposing infrastructure.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Transcutaneous and End-Tidal CO 2 Measurements in Hypoxia and Hyperoxia

BACKGROUND: Transcutaneous measurement of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) has been proposed for physiological monitoring of tactical jet aircrew because in some clinical settings it mirrors arterial CO 2 partial pressure (P a co 2 ). End-tidal monitoring in laboratory settings is known to give high-fidelity estimates of P a co 2 . METHODS: The correspondence between end-tidal (P ET co 2 ) and transcutaneous Pco 2 (tcPco 2 ) was examined in healthy volunteers under laboratory conditions of hyperoxia and hypoxia. Rest and exercise, skin heating and cooling, hyperventilation, and induced CO 2 retention were employed. RESULTS: Neither measure followed all known changes in P a co 2 and tcPco 2 changed when the skin temperature near the probe changed. Bland-Altman analysis showed significant nonzero slopes under most conditions. Regression analysis indicated that oxygen partial pressure (Po 2 ) in tissue measured as transcutaneous Po 2 (tcPo 2 ) is an important explanatory variable for tcPco 2 in addition to P ET co 2 , and that local skin temperature also has an effect. Additionally, absorption atelectasis from breathing 100% O 2 may cause P ET co 2 to deviate from P a co 2 . DISCUSSION: Even as a trend indicator for P a co 2 , tcPco 2 is not useful under conditions that resemble those in the highly dynamic tactical jet aircraft environment. P ET co 2 is also not a good indicator of CO 2 status in pilots who breathe nearly 100% O 2 . Shykoff BE, Lee LR, Gallo M, Griswold CA. Transcutaneous and end-tidal CO 2 measurements in hypoxia and hyperoxia . Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2021; 92(11):864–872 .

Biophysics↗