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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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NASA NTRS2004

Validation of Lithium-ion cell technology for JPL's 2003 Mars Exploration Rover Mission

n early 2004 JPL successfully landed two Rovers, named Spirit and Opportunity, on the surface of Mars after traveling >300 million miles over a 6-7 month period. In order to operate for extended duration on the surface of Mars, both Rovers are equipped with rechargeable Lithium-ion batteries, which were designed to aid in the launch, correct anomalies during cruise, and support surface operations in conjunction with a triple-junction deployable solar arrays. The requirements of the Lithium-ion battery include the ability to provide power at least 90 sols on the surface of Mars, operate over a wide temperature range (-20 C to +40 C), withstanding long storage periods (e.g., cruise period), operate in an inverted position, and support high currents (e.g., firing pyro events). In order to determine the viability of Lithium-ion technology to meet these stringent requirements, a comprehensive test program was implemented aimed at demonstrating the performance capability of prototype cells fabricated by Lithion, Inc. (Yardney Technical Products, Inc.). The testing performed includes, determining the (a) room temperature cycle life, (b) pulse capability as a function of temperature, (e) self-discharge and storage characteristics mission profile capability, (f) cycle life under mission simulation conditions, (g) impedance characteristics, (h) impact of cell orientation, and (i) performance in 8-cell engineering batteries. As will be discussed, the Lithium-ion prototype cells and batteries were demonstrated to meet, as well as, exceed the requirements defined by the mission.

2003 Mars Exploration Rover (MER)↗

NASA NTRS2005

Ground testing of the Li-ion batteries in support of JPL's 2003 Mars Exploration Rover Mission

In early 2004, JPL successfully landed two Rovers, named Spirit and Opportunity, on the surface of Mars after traveling > 300 million miles over a 6-7 month period. In order to operate for extended duration on the surface of Mars, both Rovers are equipped with rechargeable Lithium-ion batteries, which were designed to aid in the launch, correct anomalies during cruise, and support surface operations in conjunction with a triple-junction deployable solar arrays. The requirements of the Lithium-ion battery include the ability to provide power at least 90 sols on the surface of Mars, operate over a wide temperature range (-20(deg)C to +4O(deg)C), withstand long storage periods (e.g., cruise period), operate in an inverted position, and support high currents (e.g., firing pyro events). In order to determine the viability of meeting these requirements, ground testing was performed on a Rover Battery Assembly Unit (RBAU), consisting of two 8-cell 8 Ah lithium-ion batteries connected in parallel. The RBAU upon which the performance testing was performed is nearly identical to the batteries incorporated into the two Rovers currently on Mars. The testing performed includes, (a) performing initial characterization tests (discharge capacity at different temperatures), (b) simulating the launch conditions, (c) simulating the cruise phase conditions (including trajectory corrections), (d) simulating the entry, decent, and landing pulse load profile (if required to support the pyros) (e) simulating the Mars surface operation mission simulation conditions, as well as, (f) assessing performance capacity loss and impedance characteristics as a function of temperature and life. As will be discussed, the lithium-ion batteries (fabricated by LithiodYardney, Inc.) were demonstrated to far exceed the requirements defined by the mission, and are projected to support an extended mission (> 2 years) with margin to spare.

Li-ion batteries↗

NASA NTRS2007

Performance Testing of Lithium Li-ion Cells and Batteries in Support of JPL's 2003 Mars Exploration Rover Mission

In early 2004, JPL successfully landed two Rovers, named Spirit and Opportunity, on the surface of Mars after traveling > 300 million miles over a 6-7 month period. In order to operate for extended duration on the surface of Mars, both Rovers are equipped with rechargeable Lithium-ion batteries, which were designed to aid in the launch, correct anomalies during cruise, and support surface operations in conjunction with a triple-junction deployable solar arrays. The requirements of the Lithium-ion battery include the ability to provide power at least 90 sols on the surface of Mars, operate over a wide temperature range (-20(super 0)C to +40(super 0)C), withstand long storage periods (e.g., including pre-launch and cruise period), operate in an inverted position, and support high currents (e.g., firing pyro events). In order to determine the inability of meeting these requirements, ground testing was performed on a Rover Battery Assembly Unit RBAU), consisting of two 8-cell 8 Ah lithium-ion batteries connected in parallel. The RBAU upon which the performance testing was performed is nearly identical to the batteries incorporated into the two Rovers currently on Mars. The primary focus of this paper is to communicate the latest results regarding Mars surface operation mission simulation testing, as well as, the corresponding performance capacity loss and impedance characteristics as a function of temperature and life. As will be discussed, the lithium-ion batteries (fabricated by Yardney Technical Products, Inc.) have been demonstrated to far exceed the requirements defined by the mission, being able to support the operation of the rovers for over three years, and are projected to support an even further extended mission.

low temperature electrolytes↗

NASA NTRS1973

Apollo 16 mission anomaly report no. 9: Lunar roving vehicle electrical system meter anomalies

The off-scale low indications of the voltmeters for batteries one and two at initial powerup of the Apollo 16 lunar roving vehicle were analyzed. No single condition was found that would explain the anomalous meter indications. It is concluded that the intermittent conditions must have existed in the multiple wire splices to the meters.

Source record↗

NASA NTRS1986

Requirements specification for nickel cadmium battery expert system

The requirements for performance, design, test, and qualification of a computer program identified as NICBES, Nickel Cadmium Battery Expert System, is established. The specific spacecraft power system configuration selected was the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Electrical Power System (EPS) Testbed. Power for the HST comes from a system of 13 Solar Panel Arrays (SPAs) linked to 6 Nickel Cadmium Batteries which are connected to 3 Busses. An expert system, NICBES, will be developed at Martin Marietta Aerospace to recognize a testbed anomaly, identify the malfunctioning component and recommend a course of action. Besides fault diagnosis, NICBES will be able to evaluate battery status, give advice on battery status and provide decision support for the operator. These requirements are detailed.

Source record↗

NASA NTRS2015

A Wirelessly Powered Micro-Spectrometer for Neural Probe-Pin Device

Treatment of neurological anomalies, places stringent demands on device functionality and size. A micro-spectrometer has been developed for use as an implantable neural probe to monitor neuro-chemistry in synapses. The microspectrometer, based on a NASA-invented miniature Fresnel grating, is capable of differentiating the emission spectra from various brain tissues. The micro-spectrometer meets the size requirements, and is able to probe the neuro-chemistry and suppression voltage typically associated with a neural anomaly. This neural probe-pin device (PPD) is equipped with wireless power technology (WPT) enabling operation in a continuous manner without requiring an implanted battery. The implanted neural PPD, together with a neural electronics interface and WPT, allow real-time measurement and control/feedback for remediation of neural anomalies. The design and performance of the combined PPD/WPT device for monitoring dopamine in a rat brain will be presented to demonstrate the current level of development. Future work on this device will involve the addition of an embedded expert system capable of performing semi-autonomous management of neural functions through a routine of sensing, processing, and control.

Choi, Sang H.↗

NASA NTRS1987

BRASILSAT A2: Ground and in-orbit anomalies

A description of the anomalies encountered during ground preparation for launch and in-orbit operation of Brasilsat A2 batteries is given. Processes used during recovery of these batteries and the improvement on main parameters are discussed, covering many cycles of reconditionings and behavior during September/86 eclipse charge/discharge cycles.

Azevedoferreira, Sergio Ricardo↗

NASA NTRS1980

Discussion of the SAGE anomaly

The performance of a nine-ampere-hour, nickel cadmium cell operating in a satellite power system is examined. Data for battery average dissipation, voltage profiles, battery temperatures, and the percent of recharge versus orbit are presented. The occurence of undervoltage and increased recharge/orbit percentages are examined and suggestions are made as to their causes.

Baer, D.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Thermal Data-driven Model Reduction for Enhanced Battery Health Monitoring

Electric aviation faces a major challenge of avoiding potentially catastrophic consequences of the battery’s thermal runaway while keeping the weight of the battery low. Detection of early warning signals of battery failures requires accurate monitoring of the battery’s health throughout its lifespan. However, identifying the parameters of the battery from field data is notoriously difficult. We investigate this problem within the framework of modeling the temperature dynamics of a Li-ion cell during tests simulating loading in electric aircraft flights. It is found that the parameters of a higher-fidelity physics-based thermal model cannot be identified from the simulated flight data. To resolve this issue, we reduce the higher-fidelity thermal model to a model with fewer parameters. The resulting reduced-order model can predict temperature dynamics accurately and is identifiable throughout the cell’s lifespan which allows using the model’s parameters to monitor the state-of-health of the aging cell and detect anomalies in thermal behavior.

Li ion batteries↗

NASA NTRS2015

Solar Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ) Lubrication Interval Test and Evaluation (LITE). Post-Test Grease Analysis

The Solar Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ) is a mechanism of the International Space Station (ISS) that orients the solar power generating arrays toward the sun as the ISS orbits our planet. The orientation with the sun must be maintained to fully charge the ISS batteries and maintain all the other ISS electrical systems operating properly. In 2007, just a few months after full deployment, the starboard SARJ developed anomalies that warranted a full investigation including ISS Extravehicular Activity (EVA). The EVA uncovered unexpected debris that was due to degradation of a nitride layer on the SARJ bearing race. ISS personnel identified the failure root-cause and applied an aerospace grease to lubricate the area associated with the anomaly. The corrective action allowed the starboard SARJ to continue operating within the specified engineering parameters. The SARJ LITE (Lubrication Interval Test and Evaluation) program was initiated by NASA, Lockheed Martin, and Boeing to simulate the operation of the ISS SARJ for an extended time. The hardware was designed to test and evaluate the exact material components used aboard the ISS SARJ, but in a controlled area where engineers could continuously monitor the performance. After running the SARJ LITE test for an equivalent of 36+ years of continuous use, the test was opened to evaluate the metallography and lubrication. We have sampled the SARJ LITE rollers and plate to fully assess the grease used for lubrication. Chemical and thermal analysis of these samples has generated information that has allowed us to assess the location, migration, and current condition of the grease. The collective information will be key toward understanding and circumventing any performance deviations involving the ISS SARJ in the years to come.

Golden, Johnny L.↗

NASA NTRS1992

On-orbit deployment anamolies: What can be done?

Modern communications satellites rely heavily upon deployable appendage (i.e., solar arrays, communications antennas, etc.) to perform vital functions that enable the spacecraft to effectively conduct mission objectives. Communications and telemetry antennas provide the radio-frequency link between the spacecraft and the earth ground station, permitting data to be transmitted and received from the satellite. Solar arrays serve as the principle source of electrical energy to the satellite, and re-charge internal batteries during operation. However, since satellites cannot carry back-up systems, if a solar array fails to deploy, the mission is lost. The subject of on-orbit anomalies related to the deployment of spacecraft appendage, and possible causes of such failures are examined. Topics discussed include mechanical launch loading, on-orbit thermal and solar concerns, reliability of spacecraft pyrotechnics, and practical limitations of ground-based deployment testing. Of particular significance, the article features an in-depth look at the lessons learned from the successful recovery of the Telesat Canada Anik-E2 satellite in 1991.

Freeman, Michael↗

NASA NTRS2026

The Operational NASA Anomaly Gas Analyzer and Exploration Follow-Ons

The NASA Anomaly Gas Analyzer (AGA) is the culmination of nearly ten years of advancement of core technology originally developed by Vista Photonics through the Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) program and expanded using NASA program funding. The AGA is a portable, battery operated, optical gas detection instrument for continuous monitoring of H 2 O, CO 2 , O 2 , CO, NH 3 , HCN, HF, HCl in the spacecraft environment. Real time, in-situ monitored, gas concentrations are communicated at 1 Hz through a built-in display on-orbit and additionally through a serial interface on the ground. The instruments function over the typical range of temperatures and pressures required for the spacecraft environment. A ten-year operational life is targeted. Seven AGA instruments are currently deployed on the International Space Station and two Orion-specific units are manifested for Artemis 2. A variation of the operational AGA is under development for lunar Human Landing Systems. A wider calibrated operating pressure envelope is required in this application. Otherwise, the instruments straightforwardly address lessons learned from the original AGA by improving aspects of thermal control, ruggedness, and ease-of-use. A subset of AGA-developed sensed gases (H 2 O, CO 2 , O 2 ) is the subject of the Primary Constituent Monitor (PCM) development for the Habitation and Logistics Outpost (HALO) destined for lunar orbit. Two PCMs will be installed in HALO as part of the environmental control loop where they will interface with vehicle power and communications. While the basic sensor techniques are unchanged from the AGA, these instruments have been radiation hardened to survive for many years in the harsh target environment. Current development status for these instruments will be presented along with recent developments of a naval submarine variant.

Air Monitoring↗

NASA NTRS2026

The Operational NASA Anomaly Gas Analyzer and Exploration Follow-Ons

ECLSS↗

NASA NTRS2024

Testing of Advanced Capabilities to Enable In-time Safety Management and Assurance for Future Flight Operations

In order to refine an initial Concept of Operations, explore Concepts of Use, and expose/validate requirements for future In-Time Aviation Safety Management Systems (IASMS), testing architectures were created, along with a set of capabilities and underlying information exchange protocols. These systems were conceived and developed based on hazards associated with two envisioned urban area flight domains: (1) highly autonomous small uncrewed aerial systems (sUAS) operating at low altitudes, and (2) highly autonomous air taxis. The initial scope of this development is described in [1]; this report provides an update, focusing on the subsequent developments and test activities. As stated in [1], it is important to note that there are many capabilities already in use by the industry (or soon to be in use) that will play critical roles in future IASMS designs. Those reported here were developed to address a gap in the current state-of-the-art regarding specific hazards/risks, and/or to allow for investigation of the interplay between and across hazard types — particularly regarding how overall safety risk can be reduced or managed effectively. Results of testing and development activities are organized by the operational phase wherein a particular capability would be employed (i.e., preflight, in-flight, and post-flight/off-line). Pre-flight: A set of capabilities were developed to help mitigate safety risk prior to flight (e.g., during flight and mission planning). Results of testing summarize (1) validation activities to raise the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) and (2) evaluation activities where the capabilities were applied to flight/mission planning procedures and used by operators/pilots. For the latter, flight plans were automatically assessed, and operators/pilots were notified of hazardous flight segments so as to enable adjustment of the flight plan and re-evaluation, and/or to better inform go/no-go decisions. Capabilities addressed hazards associated with power consumption, third-party risk, wind, navigation system performance, radiofrequency interference, and proximity to geo-spatial threats (e.g., buildings, trees, and no-fly zones). In-flight: Flight experiments tested capabilities that detect and respond to hazards encountered during flight. In the first series, safety hazards were monitored and assessed onboard, and system-generated mitigation maneuvers were recorded (but not acted upon by the vehicle). In the second series, mitigation maneuver commands directed the aircraft in response to safety hazards (i.e., auto-mitigation). The sUAS used for testing is described in full, as is the test architecture, which included commercial avionics, research avionics, and onboard software designed to detect, assess, and respond to hazards. The onboard system was designed as a run-time assurance framework, consistent with [2] and supportive of both supervisory and automated modes. The primary functions included: real-time risk assessment (RTRA), auto-pilot monitoring, constraint monitoring, and contingency select/triggering. RTRA performs integrated risk assessment considering data from several hazard-related monitors (e.g., battery, motors, navigation, communications, population density, and loss-of-control). Post-flight/off-line: Data monitored and recorded during flights can enable IASMS capabilities that execute after flights have completed (or “off-line”). These include: (1) the ability to identify anomalies and trends that may only be observable when comparing data spanning a number of similar flights; (2) the ability to update and validate pre-flight and in-flight capabilities and any underlying models to improve their performance; (3) the ability to report anomalies/off-nominals that may indicate design changes or maintenance actions are needed; and (4) the ability for humans involved in operations to report safety-relevant observations to help in understanding the flight data and/or the operational context of a flight. Progress on three such capabilities is summarized; the first investigates anomaly detection given a limited set of flight logs and applies an approach previously used for space operations. The second explores what could be identified using a larger set of flight logs, including from web-based forums where flight logs are posted by sUAS autopilot users. The third creates a new means of collecting information on UAS incidents and accidents via the Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS).

sUAS↗

NASA NTRS2001

Chandra Space Flight Software: Using Software to Autonomously Operation the Largest and Most Sensitive X-Ray Telescope in the World

Chandra is the world's largest and most sensitive X-ray telescope. The Chandra X-ray Observatory is the third in NASA's family of "Great Observatories." The Chandra X-ray Observatory, launched by Space Shuttle Columbia on July 23, 1999, is NASA's newest Great Observatory. The Chandra space flight software is the operational software, which controls and directs the Chandra X-ray Observatory. The Chandra flight software has executed faultlessly for over 13,000 hours on-orbit. The Chandra flight software directly controls the Pointing, Aspect Determination, Electrical Power Subsystem, Propulsion system, and the Command, Communications, and Data Management subsystems. The software controls the spacecraft operations during all phases of the mission. The software also performs thermal control of the telescope to maintain pointing accuracy and monitors radiation levels throughout the orbit so that the Science Instruments can be safed if radiation thresholds are exceeded. The efficient operation of Chandra flight software has enabled the gathering of crucial science data. The Chandra flight software fault protection is the key to early detection and prevention of science instrument or spacecraft damage in an operating platform/environment, which is completely unforgiving. Permanently open Sun Shade Door and ACIS focal plane radiator sensitivity exposes science instruments and mirrors to damage for pointing anomalies causing an attitude excursion. The Chandra flight software must prevent these attitude excursions from occurring for ANY failure. Another example is that the power system has an unregulated bus, which imposes severe operating requirements on Chandra flight software to control array pointing and battery connection/disconnect using a unique algorithmic and logic approach. The Chandra flight software has enabled a truly autonomous vehicle with greater than 99% of all mission data collected as planned. Less than 15% of spacecraft operations are conducted in view (1 hour out of 8) leading to very extended periods without ground contact. The Chandra flight software implements the flexible mission plan during this out of view period, manages the solid state recorder capacity, controls all pointing and maneuvers, provides fault detection for all satellite subsystems, and initiates communications with the ground at the appropriate time. This paper will describe the software architecture features, key design elements and software testing techniques that have facilitated Chandra's success.

Crumbley, Tim↗

NASA NTRS1990

Primary lithium cell life studies

One solution for providing a truly independent power source is to package, within the critical subsystem element, a primary battery that can remain dormant for time periods as long as the mission life, which can be 10-15 years, maximum. When primary power from the spacecraft solar array/battery system is interrupted, the backup battery system, which is connected through a diode to the power input line, would automatically support the load to avoid a power interruption to the critical load for a time period long enough to ensure that ground control could access the satellite and correct the anomaly by sending appropriate commands to the spacecraft. Critical subsystems identified for the application are telemetry and command circuits, volatile computer memory, attitude control circuits, and some critical payloads. Due to volume packaging and weight restrictions that exist on most spacecraft, coupled with the long storage periods required, lithium cell technology was selected for the backup power source. Because of the high energy density (200-400 Wh/kg), long shelf life, and load capability, soluble cathode primary lithium technology was chosen. The most important lithium cell properties that require detail characterization for this application are capacity loss, shelf life, and the voltage delay mechanism. These are functions of storage time and temperature. During storage, a passive film builds up on the lithium electrode. The film protects the lithium electrode from progressive capacity decay but requires time to break down when a load is applied. This phenomenon results in a depressed voltage during the period of film breakdown which can last from fractions of a second to minutes.

Capulli, John↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Firmware Architecture of the ARMADAS Bolting Robot

The Automated Reconfigurable Mission Adaptive Digital Assembly Systems (ARMADAS) project, under development at NASA Ames Research Center, has demonstrated on-ground autonomous robotic assembly of extensive digital structures, and it is now moving forward towards in-space demonstration. The ARMADAS system comprises of the operation software, the operation user interface (opsUI), and a swarm of robots. The robotic system consists of a multitude of collaborative agents specifically designed to transport, place and bolt the building blocks, called voxels (volumetric pixels). This paper focuses on the bolting robot, referred to as Mobile Metamaterial Internal Co-Integrator (MMIC-I). MMIC-I is a battery-powered crawling robot. It navigates the structure through extension, contraction and gripping. Two distinct controller boards operate the robot's two symmetric modules, referred to as module A and B. Board A is the master board: it coordinates motion planning and motion primitives execution, hosts the WiFi client, performs periodic self-assessment and system idle check and triggers faults if anomalies are detected. Board B periodically sends a heartbeat to board A, through a wired communication channel that uses the Serial protocol. Additionally, board A's WiFi client receives heartbeat packet requests or motion/bolting commands from a dedicated server board, and acknowledges reception sending back a response heartbeat packet containing information about the overall robot status, e. g. electrical current and voltage values, target and actual angles, operating mode, fault status. Whenever a motion command is sent, the motion planning section of the firmware determines the current robot configuration, using Inertial Measurement Unit readings and the motors Pulse Width Modulation values. Afterwards, it calculates the list of primitives needed to reach the target state, and controls their execution in the proper order. MMIC-I can receive and execute motion and bolting commands only when it is in operational mode. MMIC-I has three operating modes: standby, operational and safed. Standby mode is automatically entered upon startup. While in standby mode, all motors are powered off, and the only accepted commands are the ones relative to a change of mode and heartbeat packet request. Fault detection causes the robot to automatically enter safed or standby mode. Whenever the detected fault occurs within a motion and requires immediate intervention, e. g. an over-current situation, the robot enters safed mode. Safed mode powers off all motors except for the locomotion module, thus preventing the robot from collapsing. Conversely, when the detected fault doesn't require immediate intervention (low battery warning, for instance), the robot enters standby mode after completing the ongoing motion. This paper provides a detailed discussion of MMIC-I's firmware architecture. It accurately describes the implementation approach for each module: sensor data reading, motor control and actuation, WiFi server-client communication, intra-boards Serial communication, operating modes and autonomous fault detection, motion planning, coordination and execution, etc. Moreover, in support of the software description, this paper includes a thorough characterization of MMIC-I's hardware and avionics.

In-space assembly↗

NASA NTRS1974

MSFC Skylab Apollo Telescope Mount thermal control system mission evaluation

The Skylab Saturn Workshop Assembly was designed to expand the knowledge of manned earth orbital operations and accomplish a multitude of scientific experiments. The Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM), a module of the Skylab Saturn Workshop Assembly, was the first manned solar observatory to successfully observe, monitor, and record the structure and behavior of the sun outside the earth's atmosphere. The ATM contained eight solar telescopes that recorded solar phenomena in X-ray, ultraviolet, white light, and hydrogen alpha regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. In addition, the ATM contained the Saturn Workshop Assembly's pointing and attitude control system, a data and communication system, and a solar array/rechargeable battery power system. This document presents the overall ATM thermal design philosophy, premission and mission support activity, and the mission thermal evaluation. Emphasis is placed on premission planning and orbital performance with particular attention on problems encountered during the mission. ATM thermal performance was satisfactory throughout the mission. Although several anomalies occurred, no failure was directly attributable to a deficiency in the thermal design.

Hueter, U.↗