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Study of aerodynamic surface control of space shuttle boost and reentry, volume 1
The optimization technique is described which was used in the study for applying modern optimal control technology to the design of shuttle booster engine reaction control systems and aerodynamic control systems. Complete formulations are presented for both the ascent and reentry portions of the study. These formulations include derivations of the 6D perturbation equations of motion and the process followed in the control and blending law selections. A total hybrid software concept applied to the study is described in detail. Conclusions and recommendations based on the results of the study are included.
TRMM On-Orbit Performance Re-Accessed After Control Change
The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) spacecraft, a joint mission between the U.S. and Japan, launched onboard an HI1 rocket on November 27,1997 and transitioned in August, 2001 from an average operating altitude of 350 kilometers to 402.5 kilometers. Due to problems using the Earth Sensor Assembly (ESA) at the higher altitude, TRMM switched to a backup attitude control mode. Prior to the orbit boost TRMM controlled pitch and roll to the local vertical using ESA measurements while using gyro data to propagate yaw attitude between yaw updates from the Sun sensors. After the orbit boost, a Kalman filter used 3-axis gyro data with Sun sensor and magnetometers to estimate onboard attitude. While originally intended to meet a degraded attitude accuracy of 0.7 degrees, the new control mode met the original 0.2 degree attitude accuracy requirement after improving onboard ephemeris prediction and adjusting the magnetometer calibration onboard. Independent roll attitude checks using a science instrument, the Precipitation Radar (PR) which was built in Japan, provided a novel insight into the pointing performance. The PR data helped identify the pointing errors after the orbit boost, track the performance improvements, and show subtle effects from ephemeris errors and gyro bias errors. It also helped identify average bias trends throughout the mission. Roll errors tracked by the PR from sample orbits pre-boost and post-boost are shown in Figure 1. Prior to the orbit boost the largest attitude errors were due to occasional interference in the ESA. These errors were sometime larger than 0.2 degrees in pitch and roll, but usually less, as estimated from a comprehensive review of the attitude excursions using gyro data. Sudden jumps in the onboard roll show up as spikes in the reported attitude since the control responds within tens of seconds to null the pointing error. The PR estimated roll tracks well with an estimate of the roll history propagated using gyro data. After the orbit boost, the attitude errors shown by the PR roll have a smooth sine-wave type signal because of the way that attitude errors propagate with the use of gyro data. Yaw errors couple at orbit period to roll with '/4 orbit lag. By tracking the amplitude, phase, and bias of the sinusoidal PR roll error signal, it was shown that the average pitch rotation axis tends to be offset from orbit normal in a direction perpendicular to the Sun direction, as shown in Figure 2 for a 200 day period following the orbit boost. This is a result of the higher accuracy and stability of the Sun sensor measurements relative to the magnetometer measurements used in the Kalman filter. In November, 2001 a magnetometer calibration adjustment was uploaded which improved the pointing performance, keeping the roll and yaw amplitudes within about 0.1 degrees. After the boost, onboard ephemeris errors had a direct effect on the pitch pointing, being used to compute the Earth pointing reference frame. Improvements after the orbit boost have kept the the onboard ephemeris errors generally below 20 kilometers. Ephemeris errors have secondary effects on roll and yaw, especially during high beta angle when pitch effects can couple into roll and yaw. This is illustrated in figure 3. The onboard roll bias trends as measured by PR data show correlations with the Kalman filter's gyro bias error. This particularly shows up after yaw turns (every 2 to 4 weeks) as shown in Figure 3, when a slight roll bias is observed while the onboard computed gyro biases settle to new values. As for longer term trends, the PR data shows that the roll bias was influenced by Earth horizon radiance effects prior to the boost, changing values at yaw turns, and indicated a long term drift as shown in Figure 4. After the boost, the bias variations were smaller and showed some possible correlation with solar beta angle, probably due to sun sensor misalignment effects.
TRMM On-Orbit Performance Reassessed After Control Change
The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) spacecraft, a joint mission between the U.S. and Japan, launched onboard an H-I1 rocket on November 27, 1997, and transitioned in August, 2001, from an average operating altitude of 350 kilometers to 402.5 kilometers. Due to problems using the Earth Sensor Assembly (ESA) at the higher altitude, TRMM switched to a backup attitude control mode. Prior to the orbit boost TRMM controlled pitch and roll to the local vertical using ESA measurements while using gyro data to propagate yaw attitude between yaw updates from the Sun sensors. After the orbit boost, a Kalman filter used 3-axis gyro data with Sun sensor and magnetometers to estimate onboard attitude. While originally intended to meet a degraded attitude accuracy of 0.7 degrees, the new control mode met the original 0.2 degree attitude accuracy requirement after improving onboard ephemeris prediction and adjusting the magnetometer calibration onboard. Independent roll attitude checks using a science instrument, the Precipitation Radar (PR) which was built in Japan, provided a novel insight into the pointing performance. The PR data helped identify the pointing errors after the orbit boost, track the performance improvements, and show subtle effects from ephemeris errors and gyro bias errors. It also helped identify average bias trends throughout the mission. Roll errors tracked by the PR from sample orbits pre-boost and post-boost are shown in Figure 1. Prior to the orbit boost, the largest attitude errors were due to occasional interference in the ESA. These errors were sometime larger than 0.2 degrees in pitch and roll, but usually less, as estimated from a comprehensive review of the attitude excursions using gyro data. Sudden jumps in the onboard roll show up as spikes in the reported attitude since the control responds within tens of seconds to null the pointing error. The PR estimated roll tracks well with an estimate of the roll history propagated using gyro data. After the orbit boost, the attitude errors shown by the PR roll have a smooth sine-wave type signal because of the way that attitude errors propagate with the use of gyro data. Yaw errors couple at orbit period to roll with 1/4 orbit lag. By tracking the amplitude, phase, and bias of the sinusoidal PR roll error signal, it was shown that the average pitch rotation axis tends to be offset from orbit normal in a direction perpendicular to the Sun direction, as shown in Figure 2 for a 200 day period following the orbit boost. This is a result of the higher accuracy and stability of the Sun sensor measurements relative to the magnetometer measurements used in the Kalman filter. In November, 2001 a magnetometer calibration adjustment was uploaded which improved the pointing performance, keeping the roll and yaw amplitudes within about 0.1 degrees.
Methods, systems and apparatus for controlling operation of two alternating current (AC) machines
A system is provided for controlling two AC machines. The system comprises a DC input voltage source that provides a DC input voltage, a voltage boost command control module (VBCCM), a five-phase PWM inverter module coupled to the two AC machines, and a boost converter coupled to the inverter module and the DC input voltage source. The boost converter is designed to supply a new DC input voltage to the inverter module having a value that is greater than or equal to a value of the DC input voltage. The VBCCM generates a boost command signal (BCS) based on modulation indexes from the two AC machines. The BCS controls the boost converter such that the boost converter generates the new DC input voltage in response to the BCS. When the two AC machines require additional voltage that exceeds the DC input voltage required to meet a combined target mechanical power required by the two AC machines, the BCS controls the boost converter to drive the new DC input voltage generated by the boost converter to a value greater than the DC input voltage.
Boosting Photoabsorption by Attosecond Control of Electron Correlation
Electron correlation plays an essential role in a wide range of fundamentally important many-body phenomena in modern physics and chemistry. An example is the importance of electron-electron correlation in multiple ionization of multielectron atoms and molecules exposed to intense laser pulses. Manipulating the dynamic electron correlation in such photoinduced processes is a crucial step toward the coherent control of chemical reactions and photobiological processes. The generation of an attosecond extreme ultraviolet (EUV) pulse may enable such controls. Here, we show for the first time, from full-dimensional ab initio calculations of double ionization of helium in intense laser pulses ( L = 780 nm), that the electron-electron interactions can be instantaneously tuned using a time-delayed attosecond EUV pulse. Consequently, the probability of producing energetic electrons from excessive photoabsorption can be enhanced by an order of magnitude, by the attosecond control of electron-electron correlation.
Effects of Exhaust Gas Recirculation and Boost Pressure on Reactivity Controlled Compression Ignition Engine at High Load Operating Conditions
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Study of aerodynamic surface control of space shuttle boost and reentry, volume 2
The derivations of mathematical models in Vol. 1 are presented along with descriptions of all peripheral studies related to the primary study objectives.
High-Dose-Rate Brachytherapy Boost Effect on Local Tumor Control in Young Women With Breast Cancer
Purpose: To evaluate the local control rate and complications of a single fraction of high-dose-rate brachytherapy (HDR BT) boost in women aged 45 yeas and younger after breast-conserving therapy. Methods and Materials: Between 1999 and 2007, 167 patients between the ages of 26 and 45 years old (72 were 40 years old or younger), with stages T1 to T2 invasive breast cancer with disease-free margin status of at least 5 mm after breast-conserving surgery received 46 to 50 Gy whole-breast irradiation plus a 7-Gy HDR-BT boost (“fast boost”). An axillary dissection was performed in 72.5% of the patients and sentinel lymph node biopsy in 27.5%. A supraclavicular area was irradiated in 19% of the patients. Chemotherapy was used in 86% of the patients and hormone treatment in 77%. Clinical nodes were present in 18% and pathological nodes in 29%. The pathological stage was pT0: 5%, pTis: 3%, pT1: 69% and pT2: 23%. Intraductal component was present in 40% and 28% were G3. Results: At a median follow-up of 92 months, 9 patients relapsed on the margin of the implant, and 1 patient in another quadrant, resulting in a 10-year local relapse rate of 4.3% and a breast relapse rate of 4.9%, with breast preservation in 93.4%; no case of mastectomy due to poor cosmesis arose. Actuarial 5- and 10-year disease-free, cause-specific, and overall survival rates were 87.9% and 85.8%, and 92.1% and 88.4%, and 92.1% and 87.3%, respectively. In a univariate analysis, triple-negative cases and negative hormone receptors did worse, but in a multivariate analysis, only the last factor was significant for local and breast control. Asymptomatic fibrosis G2 was recorded in 3 cases, and there were no other late complications. Cosmetic results were good to excellent in 97% of cases. Conclusions: A single dose of 7 Gy using the fast-boost technique is well tolerated, with a low rate of late complications and improved local tumor control in women aged 45 and younger, compared to published data. This approach is recommended in breast-preserving treatment.
Launch booster gust alleviation.
Design of gust alleviation controls for boost phase flight of missiles incorporating random winds, time-varying missile dynamics, control problem, etc
Four-Switch Buck-Boost Converter Based on Model Predictive Control with Smooth Mode Transition Capability
Four-switch buck-boost converter supports both voltage step-up and step-down functionalities, but it suffers from mode transfer challenge that would need reliable mode detection when designed to operate in multi different modes. In this paper, a novel control method based on model predictive current control is proposed for such converter with inherent smooth mode transfer capability without extra design on mode detection and transfer scheme. Modulator and mode detection are replaced by an optimization process through cost function. This largely simplifies the design and makes it easily implemented. Therefore, seamless transfer between buck and boost modes is achieved with many other system level benefits. Simulation and experimental results are provided to verify the effectiveness of proposed method for the four-switch buck-boost converter.
Distributed control system for parallel-connected DC boost converters
The disclosed invention is a distributed control system for operating a DC bus fed by disparate DC power sources that service a known or unknown load. The voltage sources vary in v-i characteristics and have time-varying, maximum supply capacities. Each source is connected to the bus via a boost converter, which may have different dynamic characteristics and power transfer capacities, but are controlled through PWM. The invention tracks the time-varying power sources and apportions their power contribution while maintaining the DC bus voltage within the specifications. A central digital controller solves the steady-state system for the optimal duty cycle settings that achieve a desired power supply apportionment scheme for a known or predictable DC load. A distributed networked control system is derived from the central system that utilizes communications among controllers to compute a shared estimate of the unknown time-varying load through shared bus current measurements and bus voltage measurements.
A GaN-based Four-Switch Buck-Boost Converter using Ripple Correlation Control for Maximum Power Point Tracking in Dynamic Deep Space Environments
As the demand for high-performance power conversion in spacecraft continues to grow and spacecraft mass and volume budgets become increasingly tight, it is essential to design DC-DC converters with higher efficiency and power density. Although photovoltaic (PV) efficiency has increased over time, solar irradiance and temperatures can fluctuate dramatically in deep space. This causes significant variations in the maximum power point (MPP) of the PV array, which can decrease the overall system efficiency unless accounted for. Thus, it is imperative to track the MPP of the PV panels to maintain optimal efficiency. This paper presents the experimental development of a four-switch, GaN-based buck-boost converter with an implementation of the Ripple Correlation Control (RCC) MPPT algorithm for dynamic deep space environments. Due to the use of GaN HEMTs, the experimental system achieves better efficiency and power density compared to the previous state of the art implementations. A simulation of the prototype buck-boost converter was implemented in SaberRD (Synopsis), and a digital design of the RCC-based MPPT controller utilizing the StateAMS tool is presented. The simulation results show that this controller swiftly and precisely converged to the MPP of the source PV panels in a dynamic solar irradiance condition.
A Comprehensive Strategy for Grid Forming Control in DC Coupled Photovoltaic and Battery Energy Storage Inverters
This paper presents an integrated DC-DC and DCAC grid-forming control strategy for DC-coupled photovoltaic (PV) plus battery energy storage systems, considering the effect of DC link voltage variations caused by direct PV connections. A power reference algorithm determines power distribution between the PV and battery to the grid while observing device power ratings to prevent the over-rating of components and keep the battery's state of charge within an acceptable range. The simulated utility-scale model in MATLAB/Simulink illustrates its ability against extreme phase angle variation contingencies in the grid while controlled through grid-forming control with a fast dynamic on DC link voltage. The simulation results confirm the effectiveness of the proposed control in integrating PV plus battery configurations with grid forming control and maintaining reliable grid operation under severe grid disturbances.
Technology Solutions Case Study: Hydronic Systems: Designing for Setback Operation
For years, conventional wisdom surrounding space heating has specified two points: size the mechanical systems to the heating loads, and setting the thermostat back at night will result in energy savings. The problem is these two recommendations oppose each other. A system that is properly sized to the heating load will not have the extra capacity necessary to recover from a thermostat setback, especially at design conditions. Properly designing a hydronic system for setback operation can be accomplished but depends on several factors. Determining the appropriateness of setback for a particular project is the first step. This is followed by proper sizing of the boiler and baseboard to ensure the needed capacity can be met. Finally, control settings must be chosen that result in the most efficient and responsive performance. This guide provides step-by-step instructions for heating contractors and hydronic designers for selecting the proper control settings to maximize system performance and improve response time when using a thermostat setback.
Hydronic Systems: Designing for Setback Operation, Ithaca, New York [Fact Sheet]
Conventional wisdom surrounding space heating has told us a couple of things consistently for several years now: size the mechanical systems to the heating loads and setting the thermostat back at night will result in energy savings. The problem is these two recommendations oppose each other. A system that is properly sized to the heating load will not have the extra capacity necessary to recover from a thermostat setback, especially at design conditions. The implication of this is that, for setback to be successfully implemented, the heating system must be oversized. This issue is exacerbated further when an outdoor reset control is used with a condensing boiler, because not only is the system matched to the load at design, the outdoor reset control matches the output to the load under varying outdoor temperatures. Under these circumstances, the home may never recover from setback. Special controls to bypass the outdoor reset sensor are then needed. Properly designing a hydronic system for setback operation can be accomplished but depends on several factors. Determining the appropriateness of setback for a particular project is the first step. This is followed by proper sizing of the boiler and baseboard to ensure the needed capacity can be met. Finally, control settings must be chosen that result in the most efficient and responsive performance. This guide provides step by step instructions for heating contractors and hydronic designers for selecting the proper control settings to maximize system performance and improve response time when using a thermostat setback.
Measure Guideline: Condensing Boilers - Optimizing Efficiency and Response Time During Setback Operation
Conventional wisdom surrounding space heating has told us a couple of things consistently for several years now: size the mechanical systems to the heating loads and setting the thermostat back at night will result in energy savings. The problem is these two recommendations oppose each other. A system that is properly sized to the heating load will not have the extra capacity necessary to recover from a thermostat setback, especially at design conditions. The implication of this is that, for setback to be successfully implemented, the heating system must be oversized. This issue is exacerbated further when an outdoor reset control is used with a condensing boiler, because not only is the system matched to the load at design, the outdoor reset control matches the output to the load under varying outdoor temperatures. Under these circumstances, the home may never recover from setback. Special controls to bypass the outdoor reset sensor are then needed. Properly designing a hydronic system for setback operation can be accomplished but depends on several factors. Determining the appropriateness of setback for a particular project is the first step. This is followed by proper sizing of the boiler and baseboard to ensure the needed capacity can be met. Finally, control settings must be chosen that result in the most efficient and responsive performance. This guide provides step by step instructions for heating contractors and hydronic designers for selecting the proper control settings to maximize system performance and improve response time when using a thermostat setback.
Measure Guideline: Condensing Boilers-Optimizing Efficiency and Response Time During Setback Operation
Conventional wisdom surrounding space heating has consistently stated two things: size the mechanical systems to the heating loads, and setting the thermostat back at night will result in energy savings. The problem is these two recommendations oppose each other. A system that is properly sized to the heating load will not have the extra capacity necessary to recover from a thermostat setback, especially at design conditions. The implication of this is that, for setback to be successfully implemented, the heating system must be oversized. This issue is exacerbated further when an outdoor reset control is used with a condensing boiler, because not only is the system matched to the load at design, the outdoor reset control matches the output to the load under varying outdoor temperatures. Under these circumstances, the home may never recover from setback. Special controls to bypass the outdoor reset sensor are then needed. Properly designing a hydronic system for setback operation can be accomplished but depends on several factors. The first step is to determine the appropriateness of setback for a particular project. This is followed by proper sizing of the boiler and baseboard to ensure the needed capacity can be met. Finally, control settings must be chosen that result in the most efficient and responsive performance. This guide provides step-by-step instructions for heating contractors and hydronic designers for selecting the proper control settings to maximize system performance and improve response time when using a thermostat setback.