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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2021

Direct Recycling of Blended Cathode Materials by Froth Flotation

We report that direct Li-ion battery recycling involves separating cathode active materials in the solid phase while preserving their electrochemical performance. To reuse the recycled ones in new batteries, it is necessary to separate individual cathode components, which would typically occur prior to the rejuvenation and any compositional reformulation processes. Herein, a froth flotation process is developed to separate pristine lithium nickel-manganese-cobalt oxide (LiNi 0.333 Mn 0.333 Co 0.333 O 2 , NMC111) and lithium manganese oxide (LMO) materials. The flotation results show that with multiple stages of the separation processes, a satisfactory separation is achieved with 95% grade or above of NMC111 in the froth product and 95% grade of LMO in the tailing product. The electrochemistry results show that the flotation chemicals have negligible impact on the electrochemical performance of recycled active materials, whereas the NMC111 exhibits a minor capacity fade after being in contact with deionized water at 2% solid concentration. An improvement in both the rate and cycling performance is achieved at 10% solid concentration or higher. It is found that there is little compositional and structural change to the aqueous recycled NMC111 powders. An effective and low-cost separation method for direct recycling mixed cathode compositions is demonstrated.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

A High Energy–Density, Cobalt–Free, Low–Nickel LiNi 0.7 Mn 0.25 Al 0.05 O 2 Cathode with a High–Voltage Electrolyte for Lithium–Metal Batteries

Cobalt-free cathode materials have garnered increased attention for applications in next-generation batteries for electric vehicles, as cobalt is considered to have at a high supply chain risk. Here, the use of a localized saturated electrolyte (LSE) to enable stable cycling of a cobalt-free, low-nickel layered-oxide cathode LiNi 0.7 Mn 0.25 Al 0.05 O 2 (NMA-70) to higher voltages (4.6 V) in a lithium-metal battery is demonstrated. Compared to the baseline LP57 electrolyte, the LSE extends the cycle life from ≈100 cycles to ≈400 cycles before reaching 80% capacity retention. Visual indicators of cell degradation, such as product deposition, are observed on electrodes cycled in LP57. It is shown that cycling NMA-70 in LSE reduces the overall active material loss and overpotential growth during extended cycling. This is attributed to the formation of a beneficial fluorinated interphase layer, a lower degree of rock-salt phase formation, and a reduction in the gas evolution from the cathode surface. The decrease in gas evolution from the cathode cycled in LSE reflects a lower degree of electrolyte reactivity and an overall improvement in the safety characteristics of the cell. Furthermore, this study highlights the importance of a stable electrolyte to enable the high-voltage cycling of alternative, lower nickel, and cobalt-free cathodes.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Perspectives on the relationship between materials chemistry and roll-to-roll electrode manufacturing for high-energy lithium-ion batteries

As lithium-ion battery (LIB) active material and cell manufacturing costs continue to drop with wider adoption of electric vehicles, electrode and cell processing costs remain too high in terms of reaching the ultimate U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) cell cost target of $80/kWh. This paper primarily covers major materials chemistry advancements made over the last 10 years at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in the space of advanced manufacturing science for LIBs with the aim of simultaneously meeting the ultimate cost target, 500 Wh/kg gravimetric energy density, 10-15-min fast charge times, and 1000 deep discharge cycles. Aqeous electrode processing with a variety of active anode and cathode materials is now a standard procedure at the DOE Battery Manufacturing R&D Facility at ORNL (BMF), including the latest processes developed for Ni-rich cathodes. New results on cobalt-free LiNi 0.8 Fe 0.1 Al 0.1 O 2 (NFA 811) are also included and discussed in an electrode processing advantage context. In addition, colloidal processing advancements have been made for Si/C composite anodes for achieving >600 mA h/g capacities. Optimization of electrode coating parameters and drying protocols have been completed, which has elucidated how key processing variables need to be changed when parameters such as slurry solids loading, solvent type, and wet electrode thickness are changed. ORNL has also increased the line speeds at which thick cathodes can be processed using ultra-fast electron beam (EB) curing and substantially decreased formation cycling times to <1 day. Finally, key details of these advancements are discussed in the context of materials chemistry and process-property-performance relationships.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Aerosol Manufacturing Technology to Produce Low-Cobalt Li-ion Battery Cathodes

Although considerable progress has been made with battery materials over the last 10 years, the cathode remains a major performance-limiting material in Li-ion battery (LIB) technology. New materials and battery chemistries will overcome some of the remaining challenges, but cathode materials must also be manufactured at a lower cost and with a smaller environmental footprint using new processes that can also enable improved control over stoichiometry, morphology, and compositional homogeneity. Cabot, Argonne National Laboratory and SAFT research teams are combining their extensive expertise in particle synthesis, battery materials and cell design to develop a low-cost, flexible aerosol manufacturing technology for production of high-performance cathode active materials (CAM). This project will develop low-Co CAMs via Reactive Spray Technology (RST) and Flame Spray Pyrolysis (FSP) to reach performance targets of < 50 mg Cobalt/Wh.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Improving Durability of Fuel Cells with Platinum-rich Alloy Cathode Catalysts

Pt 3 Co-alloy based nanoparticle catalysts are very active for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) thereby enabling high performance of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) for automotive propulsion. However, these catalyst materials degrade due to a combination of electrochemical surface area (ECSA) loss and dissolution of cobalt-alloying element from the nanoparticles. Dissolution of cobalt has a two-fold impact on the durability of fuel cells—i) a loss in the low-current density kinetic region due to a decrease in specific activity and ii) a loss in the high-current density transport region due to Co 2+ contamination of the ionomer phase. Cobalt dissolution-contamination needs to be mitigated as it limits fuel cell performance and lifetime for heavy-duty automotive applications. In this article, we study the use of PtCo-alloy catalysts with Pt-rich compositions using catalyst-specific accelerated stress test measurement in membrane electrode assemblies to decrease the amount of dissolved Co and mitigate its subsequent contamination effects. We demonstrate Pt 5 Co and Pt 7 Co compositions to enable significant improvements in durability (∼50 mV and ∼100 mV with respect to Pt 3 Co after 30,000 voltage cycles) with a minor but acceptable compromise in the initial specific activity of the catalyst.

08 HYDROGEN↗
NASA NTRS2012

An Integrated, Layered-Spinel Composite Cathode for Energy Storage Applications

At low operating temperatures, commercially available electrode materials for lithium-ion batteries do not fully meet the energy and power requirements for NASA fs exploration activities. The composite cathode under development is projected to provide the required energy and power densities at low temperatures and its usage will considerably reduce the overall volume and weight of the battery pack. The newly developed composite electrode material can provide superior electrochemical performance relative to a commercially available lithium cobalt system. One advantage of using a composite cathode is its higher energy density, which can lead to smaller and lighter battery packs. In the current program, different series of layered-spinel composite materials with at least two different systems in an integrated structure were synthesized, and the volumetric and gravimetric energy densities were evaluated. In an integrated network of a composite electrode, the effect of the combined structures is to enhance the capacity and power capabilities of the material to levels greater than what is possible in current state-of-the-art cathode systems. The main objective of the current program is to implement a novel cathode material that meets NASA fs low temperature energy density requirements. An important feature of the composite cathode is that it has at least two components (e.g., layered and spinel) that are structurally integrated. The layered material by itself is electrochemically inactive; however, upon structural integration with a spinel material, the layered material can be electrochemically activated, thereby delivering a large amount of energy with stable cycling. A key aspect of the innovation has been the development of a scalable process to produce submicronand micron-scale particles of these composite materials. An additional advantage of using such a composite electrode material is its low irreversible loss (.5%), which is primarily due to the unique activation of the composite. High columbic efficiency (greater than 99%) upon cycling may indicate the formation of a stable SEI (solid-electrolyte interface) layer, which can contribute to long cycle life. The innovation in the current program, when further developed, will enable the system to maintain high energy and power densities at low temperatures, improve efficiency, and further stabilize and enhance the safety of the cell.

Hagh, Nader↗
DOE OSTI2025

Cycling Performance and Structure Evolution of Co-Free Lithium- and Manganese-Rich Layered Oxides in Lithium-Ion Batteries

Lithium- and manganese-rich (LMR) layered oxides are high-capacity cathode materials that are being considered for electric vehicle (EV) lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Here, we investigate the electrochemical cycling behavior of cells containing a cobalt-free LMR oxide, 0.3Li 2 MnO 3 ·0.7LiMn 0.5 Ni 0.5 O 2 , paired with either Li or graphite anodes. Two- and three-electrode cells are cycled under varying conditions to examine the effects of oxide activation, upper cutoff voltage, separator type, and electrolyte composition. Post-cycling characterization of harvested electrodes, with electrochemical, X-ray absorption spectroscopy, and solid-state 6 Li nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy techniques, are used to correlate cell performance changes with redox state evolution in the oxide and Li inventory shifts in the cell. Our results show that capacity fade and impedance rise primarily originate at the graphite anode and LMR cathode, respectively. Notably, while Ni undergoes reversible redox, Mn shows no evidence of bulk redox activity even in highly-aged electrodes: only relithiated LMR electrodes show some reduction of Mn. Graphite electrodes degrade due to particle isolation and SEI growth, exacerbated by Mn dissolution and deposition on graphite anodes. These findings highlight the coupled structural and electrochemical degradation mechanisms in LMR/graphite cells and underscore lithium inventory retention and electrode interfacial stability as critical factors for enhancing long-term performance.

Badami, Pavan P. [Argonne National Laboratory (ANL↗
DOE OSTI2024

Enhancing the Reaction Kinetics and Stability of Co‐Free Li‐Rich Cathode Materials via a Multifunctional Strategy

Co-free Li-rich layered oxides (CFLLOs) with anionic redox activity are among the most promising cathode materials for high-energy-density and low-cost lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, irreversible oxygen release often causes severe structural deterioration, electrolyte decomposition, and the formation of unstable cathode-electrolyte interface (CEI) film with high impedance. Additionally, the elimination of cobalt elements further deteriorates the reaction kinetics, leading to reduced capacity and poor rate performance. Here, in this study, a multifunctional strategy is proposed, incorporating Li 2 MnO 3 phase content regulation, micro-nano structure design, and heteroatom substitution. The increased content of Li 2 MnO 3 phase enhances the capacity through oxygen redox. The smaller nanoscale primary particles induce greater tensile strain and introduce more grain boundaries, thereby improving the reaction kinetics and reactivity, while the larger micron-sized secondary particles help to reduce interfacial side reactions. Furthermore, Na⁺ doping modulates the local coordination environment of oxygen, stabilizing both the anion framework and the crystal structure. As a result, the designed cathode exhibits enhanced rate performance, delivering a capacity of 158 mAh g⁻¹ at 5.0 C and improved cyclic stability, with a high capacity retention of 99% after 400 cycles at 1.0 C. This multifunctional strategy holds great promise for advancing the practical application of CFLLOs in next-generation LIBs.

Co-free Li-rich layered oxide↗
DOE OSTI2021

In–Depth Analysis of the Degradation Mechanisms of High–Nickel, Low/No–Cobalt Layered Oxide Cathodes for Lithium–Ion Batteries

A rational compositional design of high-nickel, cobalt-free layered oxide materials for high-energy and low-cost lithium-ion batteries would be expected to further propel the widespread adoption of electric vehicles (EVs), yet a composition with satisfactory electrochemical properties has yet to emerge. The previous work has demonstrated a promising LiNi 0.883 Mn 0.056 Al 0.061 O 2 (NMA-89) composition that outperformed high-nickel, cobalt-containing analogs in cycling stability and maintained a comparable rate performance and thermal stability. Herein, the capacity fading mechanism of NMA-89 in a pouch full cell with a 4.2 V cutoff is compared to that of its cobalt-containing analogs. The results reveal that particle cracking in LiNi 0.89 Mn 0.055 Co 0.055 O 2 (NMC-89) and LiNi 0.883 Co 0.053 Al 0.064 O 2 (NCA-89) leads to a loss of active material and an increase in surface area, thereby exacerbating structural and surface instabilities, accelerating impedance and polarization growth, and ultimately reducing their capacity retentions. LiNi 0.89 Mn 0.044 Co 0.042 Al 0.013 Mg 0.011 O 2 (NMCAM-89) and NMA-89 experience subdued surface reactions and maintain spherical particle structures, both of which are conducive to their capacity retentions during long-term cycling. Furthermore, this investigation offers insights into how specific transition-metal ions dictate the electrochemical stability of high-Ni layered oxide cathode materials, highlights the benefit of Mn-Al combination in NMA-89, and presents potential strategies to further enhance the performance of this novel class of cathode materials.

degradation mechanisms↗
DOE OSTI2023

Enhanced Electrochemical Performance of Disordered Rocksalt Cathodes Enabled by a Graphite Conductive Additive

Cobalt-free cation-disordered rocksalt (DRX) cathodes are a promising class of materials for next-generation Li-ion batteries. Although they have high theoretical specific capacities (>300 mA h/g) and moderate operating voltages (~3.5 V vs Li/Li + ), DRX cathodes typically require a high carbon content (up to 30 wt %) to fully utilize the active material which has a detrimental impact on cell-level energy density. To assess pathways to reduce the electrode’s carbon content, the present study investigates how the carbon’s microstructure and loading (10–20 wt %) influence the performance of DRX cathodes with the nominal composition Li 1.2 Mn 0.5 Ti 0.3 O 1.9 F 0.1 . While electrodes prepared with conventional disordered carbon additives (C65 and ketjenblack) exhibit rapid capacity fade due to an unstable cathode/electrolyte interface, DRX cathodes containing 10 wt % graphite show superior cycling performance (e.g., reversible capacities ~260 mA h/g with 85% capacity retention after 50 cycles) and rate capability (~135 mA h/g at 1000 mA/g). Furthermore, a suite of characterization tools was employed to evaluate the performance differences among these composite electrodes. Overall, these results indicate that the superior performance of the graphite-based cathodes is largely attributed to the: (i) formation of a uniform graphitic coating on DRX particles which protects the surface from parasitic reactions at high states of charge and (ii) homogeneous dispersion of the active material and carbon throughout the composite cathode which provides a robust electronically conductive network that can withstand repeated charge–discharge cycles. Overall, this study provides key scientific insights on how the carbon microstructure and electrode processing influence the performance of DRX cathodes. Based on these results, exploration of alternative routes to apply graphitic coatings is recommended to further optimize the material performance.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

High-Performance Low-Cobalt Cathode Materials for Li-ion Batteries

The layer-structured Li[Ni x Co y Mn 1-x-y ]O 2 (NCM) cathode materials have been the best choice for increasing electric vehicle driving distance per charge. The high Ni layered oxide represents successfully commercialized NCM cathodes (such as NCM622 and NCA) in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) for EV applications due to their high energy density and acceptable cycling stability. However, the price of cobalt, the key element within LIBs for stability, has nearly tripled over the past few years due to increased demand from the cell phone industry. As mentioned in the DOE Funding Opportunity Announcement, the current materials shortage will also cause speculation for a future global shortage. Therefore, to meet the requirement and sustainability of the next-generation long-range and low-cost EVs, developing cathode materials with low-Co content to achieve higher energy density and lower cost is both essential and urgent. The overarching objective of this work is to develop stabilized NCM cathode materials with low Co content (namely LiNi x Co y Mn 1-x-y O 2 , y ≤ 0.04) to meet DOE’s goal of reducing Co loading below 50 mg Wh -1 while maintaining energy density greater than 600 Wh kg -1 based on cathode material. Via various dopings and coatings scalable methods, we explored and enhanced the cycling performance of low-cobalt cathodes. The final obtained NCM cathodes paired with graphite anode aim to deliver batteries with a high initial specific energy density of over 240 Wh kg -1 and a low capacity fading rate of less than 20% in 1000 cycles under a C/3 discharge rate. To accomplish this goal, a multidisciplinary team with several co-investigators has been formed from three organizations: The Pennsylvania State University (PSU), Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL). The PI and co-investigators are Dr. Donghai Wang (PI) from PSU with expertise in the synthesis of nanostructured materials and manipulation of interfacial properties of electrochemically active materials, Dr. Jagjit Nanda, with substantial knowledge of and expertise in state-of-the-art cathodes from ORNL, Dr. Chao-Yang Wang with significant experience in advanced cell design and fabrication and cell diagnostics from PSU, and Dr. Chongmin Wang with world-wide known expertise of advance atomic scale characterization of electrode materials from PNNL. Furthermore, this project will leverage and synergistically work with the current DOE-funded programs on battery materials at PSU and ORNL and electrode materials characterization at PNNL. During this funded period, we have accomplished milestones stated as follows: • Scale up production of LiFePO 4 (LFP) coated NCM811 with a production of 300g/batch. Fifteen (≥2 Ah) pouch cells with LFP-coated NCM811 cathode are delivered. Self-evaluated pouch cells in PSU show superior over 80% capacity retention performance even after 1500 cycles at C/3 rate. • Various cations (Al, Ti, Zr, and Mo) substitute cobalt in low-cobalt partially and Co-free cathodes. Their effects on crystal structure and electrochemical behavior are explored. • Phosphate compounds as coating materials represent promising surface protection precursors for low-cobalt cathode materials. Therefore, several metal phosphates were selected for improving the NMC cycling performance and are regarded as effective approaches for a scalable and practical surface protection method. • Production of NCM92, where Nickel content is 92% among transition metals, is scaled up from synthesis to coating and heat treatment procedures. Fifteen 2.7Ah pouch cells with Ti-doped NCM92 cathodes and industrial graphite anode are delivered to Idaho National Lab for testing.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Interface synergism and engineering of Pd/Co@N-C for direct ethanol fuel cells

Direct ethanol fuel cells have been widely investigated as nontoxic and low-corrosive energy conversion devices with high energy and power densities. It is still challenging to develop high-activity and durable catalysts for a complete ethanol oxidation reaction on the anode and accelerated oxygen reduction reaction on the cathode. The materials’ physics and chemistry at the catalytic interface play a vital role in determining the overall performance of the catalysts. Herein, we propose a Pd/Co@N-C catalyst that can be used as a model system to study the synergism and engineering at the solid-solid interface. Particularly, the transformation of amorphous carbon to highly graphitic carbon promoted by cobalt nanoparticles helps achieve the spatial confinement effect, which prevents structural degradation of the catalysts. The strong catalyst-support and electronic effects at the interface between palladium and Co@N-C endow the electron-deficient state of palladium, which enhances the electron transfer and improved activity/durability. The Pd/Co@N-C delivers a maximum power density of 438 mW cm -2 in direct ethanol fuel cells and can be operated stably for more than 1000 hours. This work presents a strategy for the ingenious catalyst structural design that will promote the development of fuel cells and other sustainable energy-related technologies.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Voltage and temperature effects on low cobalt lithium-ion battery cathode degradation

Degradation of low cobalt lithium-ion cathodes was tested using a full factorial combination of upper cut-off voltage (4.0 V and 4.3 V vs. Li/Li + ) and operating temperature (25 °C and 60 °C). Half-cell batteries were analyzed with electrochemical and microstructural characterization methods. Electrochemical performance was assessed with galvanostatic cycling, cyclic voltammetry (CV), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) supported by distribution of relaxation times (DRT) analysis. Electrode microstructure was characterized with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) imaging. Higher cut-off voltage cycling shows presence of NiO x formation, a low diffusivity rock-salt phase, in both CV and XRD data. XRD patterns confirmed that the rock-salt phase was beginning to form at the low cut-off voltage at high temperature, but in much lower intensity than at the high cut-off voltage. Higher temperature accelerates degradation processes at both voltages. Degradation factors at high temperature include NiO x formation, cathode material dissolution, and electrolyte decomposition. SEM analysis suggests that supporting phases may isolate and disconnect active material particles reducing capacity retention and battery life cycle. DRT analysis and XANES imaging show that both high temperature samples revealed a NiO x phase based on an increased diffusive impedance and a visible shift in the XANES spectra. The low cut-off voltage, high temperature sample showed a split peak and shift to lower energies indicating early formation of the NiO x phase. The diffusive impedance, which hinders intercalation and deintercalation, is driven by the formation of the NiO x phase. While primarily driven by cut-off voltage, elevated temperature also contributes to this degradation mechanism.

electrochemical impedance spectroscopy↗
NASA NTRS2017

Factors Limiting Li+ Charge Transfer Kinetics in Li-ion Batteries

Understanding the factors limiting Li+ charge transfer kinetics in Li-ion batteries is essential in improving the rate performance, especially at lower temperatures. The Li+ charge transfer process involved in the lithium intercalation of graphite anode includes the step of de-solvation of the solvated Li+ in the liquid electrolyte and the step of transport of Li+ in the preformed solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) on electrodes until the Li+ accepts an electron at the electrode and becomes a Li in the electrode. Whether the de-solvation process or the Li+ transport through the SEI is a limiting step depends on the nature of the interphases at the electrode and electrolyte interfaces. Several examples involving the electrode materials such as graphite, lithium titanate (LTO), lithium iron phosphate (LFP), lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA) and solid Li+ conductor such as lithium lanthanum titanate or Li-Al-Ti-phosphate are reviewed and discussed to clarify the conditions at which either the de-solvation or the transport of Li+ in SEI is dominating and how the electrolyte components affect the activation energy of Li+ charge transfer kinetics. How the electrolyte additives impact the Li+ charge transfer kinetics at both the anode and the cathode has been examined at the same time in 3-electrode full cells. The resulting impact on Li+ charge transfer resistance, Rct, and activation energy, Ea, at both electrodes are reported and discussed.

Delp, Samuel A.↗
DOE OSTI2020

Stabilizing and understanding the interface between nickel-rich cathode and PEO-based electrolyte by lithium niobium oxide coating for high-performance all-solid-state batteries

The pursuit of high energy density and safe lithium ion batteries (LIBs) is the urgent goal for the development of next-generation electric vehicles (EVs). All-solid-state batteries (ASSBs) with the combination of poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)-based solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) and Ni-rich lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 (NMC811) cathode are promising candidates for EVs due to their improved energy density and safety. However, the low electrochemical oxidation window of PEO-based SPE and the instability of NMC811 at the charge/discharge process seriously restrict the battery performance. Herein, a high voltage stable solid-state electrolyte layer lithium niobium oxide (LNO) is coated on the NMC811 electrode surface by atomic layer deposition for stabilizing NMC811-PEO solid polymer batteries. Electrochemical tests show that LNO coating can stabilize the NMC811 active materials and mitigate the decomposition of SPE upon the cycling process, rendering a good performance of NMC811-PEO solid polymer battery. Mechanism studies by SEM, STEM, XAS, and XPS disclose that the uncoated NMC811 suffers from chemomechanical degradations along with oxygen release triggering the decomposition of SPE, which results in unstable cathodic electrolyte interphase. With LNO coating, chemomechanical degradations and oxygen release are inhibited and the decomposition of SPE is mitigated. This paper renders a stable and high-performance high-energy-density SSB for high voltage application, which paves the way toward next-generation solid-state LIBs.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Development of Li–S Battery Cells with High Energy Density and Long Cycling Life

Lithium–sulfur (Li–S) batteries are considered one of the most promising next-generation energy storage technologies for electric vehicles, owing to their high energy density (up to three times greater than current lithium-ion batteries) and the low cost of sulfur (approximately 100 times cheaper than conventional cobalt oxide). However, several challenges hinder their commercial viability, including the electronically and ionically insulating nature of sulfur, polysulfide dissolution, and lithium dendrite growth. These issues significantly limit battery energy density and cycle life and must be addressed to enable successful commercialization. Current strategies involving porous carbon structures, additives, and electrocatalyst engineering have not fully resolved the polysulfide dissolution problem. While polysulfide-free cathode materials offer a promising solution, they often suffer from low sulfur content, leading to reduced discharge capacity and sluggish reaction kinetics. To overcome these limitations, we have developed novel soluble-polysulfide-free sulfur cathode active materials with a high sulfur content (>50 wt%). By integrating these cathodes with functional binders, optimized electrolyte formulations, and refined electrode fabrication techniques, we demonstrate Li–S batteries with both high energy density and long cycle life. This advancement brings the realization of low-cost, high-energy Li–S batteries significantly closer to practical application.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Future Battery Material Demand Analysis Based on U.S. Department of Energy R&D Targets

The U.S. Department of Energy’s Vehicle Technologies Office (VTO) supports research, development, and deployment of efficient, sustainable transportation technologies that will improve energy efficiency and fuel economy, and enable America to use less petroleum. To accelerate the development and adoption of new technologies, VTO has developed specific targets for a wide range of powertrain components, including the energy storage system. In this study, we use Autonomie, Argonne National Laboratory’s (Argonne’s) vehicle system simulation tool to evaluate future energy storage requirements (power, energy, etc.) for different vehicle classes, powertrains, component technologies and timeframes. BatPac, Argonne’s tool dedicated to energy storage pack design and costs, is then used to quantify the materials required for each pack. Market penetrations are then used to estimate the overall material demand worldwide and in the United States, with or without recycling. The results demonstrate that the positive impact of VTO research and development will lead to significant reduction in material compared to business-as-usual due to new anode and cathode designs, along with acceleration in battery cell chemistry penetrations. In terms of material demands, it is observed that lithium demand reaches about 80,000 tons (by a factor of 42–45), nickel demand reaches about 500,000 tons (by a factor of 47–56), manganese demand reaches about 30,000–50,000 tons (by a factor of 20–34), and cobalt demand reaches about 30,000 tons (by a factor of 13–28) in the future by 2050. The individual material demand per unit energy, however, decreases significantly in the future due to advances in VTO research and development activities. The increase in battery material demands is mostly driven by increased electrified vehicle fleet penetration in the markets.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗