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DOE OSTI2020

High-Temperature Alkaline Water Electrolysis

Hydrogen production for mobile and energy storage applications from water electrolysis is attractive due to its high efficiency, fast ramp rates, and potential for the clean energy economy. However, current hydrogen production from electrolysis comprises only a small fraction of the global hydrogen market due to the high cost associated with expensive stack materials (membrane, catalyst, and bipolar plates) and electricity consumption of the commercial electrolysis systems. In this project, we aimed to develop a high temperature alkaline water electrolyzer (HTAWE) that can simultaneously reduce the electrolyzer cost (by adopting cheap material) and improve energy efficiency (by enabling high-temperature operation).

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2024

Characterization of Porous Transport Layers Towards the Development of Efficient Proton Exchange Membrane Water Electrolysis

The current goals for implementing the hydrogen economy have highlighted a need to further optimize water-splitting technologies for clean hydrogen production. Proton exchange membrane water electrolysis (PEMWE) is a leading technology, but further optimizations of anode materials including the porous transport layer (PTL) and the adjacent catalyst layer (CL) are required to increase overall cell performance and reduce cost. This literature review describes advances in PTL development and characterization, highlighting early PTL characterization work and most common methods including capillary flow porometry and mercury intrusion porometry, optical imaging, neutron and x-ray radiography, and x-ray computed tomography. The article also discusses PTL protective coatings and their characterizations, focusing on platinum group metal (PGM)-based coatings, alternative non-PGM-based coatings, post-treated PTLs, and investigations into thin PGM-based coatings. Furthermore, it highlights the integration of the PTL and the adjacent CL along with associated characterization challenges. Lastly, this review discusses future developments in the characterization needed to improve PEMWE's performance and long-term durability are discussed.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2026

Hybrid Ionomer-Free Porous Transport Electrodes With Catalyst Coated Membranes for Enhanced Water Electrolysis

To promote industrial uptake of clean hydrogen production technologies such as polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) water electrolyzers, advancements in catalyst layer (CL) morphology are required. We demonstrate how improved electrochemical performance can be achieved when using an ionomer free porous transport electrode (PTE) coupled with a traditional catalyst coated membrane (CCM) assembly in PEM water electrolyzers. Notably, we reveal that the superior performance achieved when utilizing a hybrid PTE and CCM assembly is due to enhanced ohmic performance caused by optimal contact with both the porous transport layer (PTL) and PEM interfaces. Using operando neutron radiography, we demonstrate that configurations utilizing a CCM resulted in more rapid water replenishment to reaction sites, indicating enhanced membrane hydration beneficial for performance. This enhanced membrane hydration coupled with improved contact area at the PEM-catalyst layer (CL) and PTL-CL interfaces was revealed through the reduced ohmic overpotentials of the hybrid PTE-CCM design, which achieved the lowest ohmic overpotential of 431 mV at 2000 mA cm−2. While the average in-plane water distributions are generally similar between cell configurations, we reveal that utilizing a PTE configuration promotes a more homogenous water distribution near the CL-membrane interface due to enhanced catalyst utilization.

Seip, Tess [ORNL] (ORCID:0000000232740594)↗

DOE OSTI2024

Ultra-stable and poison tolerant oxygen evolution activity enabled by surface In 2 O 3- x (OH) y of Co 3 In 2 S 2 large single crystals

Water is an earth-abundant source for clean hydrogen production via electrochemical water electrolysis (WE). However, the surface poisoning that occurs in aqueous electrolytes drastically deactivates the electrocatalytic performance of electrodes. Here, in this study, we report electrochemically formed In 2 O 3-x (OH) y on the surface of a large (1–1.5 mm long, 0.5–0.6 mm wide and 0.3–0.5 mm thick) single crystal of Weyl semimetal Co 3 In 2 S 2 (Co 3 In 2 S 2 /In 2 O 3-x (OH) y ) as an ultra-stable and poison tolerant electrode for the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) in 1 M KOH, addressing a bottleneck in WE. The OER activity of the powder form of Co 3 In 2 S 2 is limited by its aerophilic nature. Remarkably, the single-crystal electrodes maintained their high activity for a continuous operational period of 5 h in 1 M KOH electrolyte with/without 10 mM strong surface-poisoning ligands i.e., potassium cyanide, bipyridine, and ethylenediaminetetraacetate disodium salt. The electrodes exhibited stable OER activity for 1000 h at 100 mA cm -2 (1.73 V vs. RHE). The temperature-dependent OER polarization curves (10–70 °C) unambiguously revealed surface poisoning through the suppression of precatalytic Co-redox peaks on the bipyridine poisoned electrode, which led to the stabilization of surface Co-sites. The X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analyses of pristine, poisoned and post-electrocatalytic single-crystal Co 3 In 2 S 2 electrodes revealed the existence of an In 2 O 3-x (OH) y surface phase, which could be the potential heterostructure for the origin of ultra-stable and poison tolerant OER activity.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2022

High Temperature Steam Electrolysis Process Performance and Cost Estimates - DOE Hydrogen Program AMR Presentation

Technology readiness levels (TRLs) of electrolysis systems have dramatically increased in recent years as the interest in clean hydrogen production and decarbonization of transportation, industrial and other sectors increases across the globe. This is especially true of high temperature steam electrolysis (HTSE) / solid oxide electrolysis cell (SOEC) systems which show promise of much higher system efficiencies than other more developed electrolysis technologies. This possibility of higher efficiencies of HTSE / SOEC systems has been previously assumed to be theoretically possible but in recent years it has become less theoretical and more realistic as an increasing amount of suppliers complete lab and pilot tests showing very promising results. Research in the areas of manufacturing techniques, material selection, electrode and electrolyte compositions, and balance of plant size and integration continues at a fast pace as an increasing number of suppliers both internationally and domestically become involved. The advantages of HTSE become more pronounced when HTSE is coupled with nuclear power plants (NPPs). This is because thermal energy produced by the nuclear reactor can be used in a series of heat transfer loops and heat exchangers to vaporize HTSE feedwater, which drastically improves the economics of the process. Idaho National Laboratory (INL) has been very involved in the research and modeling of HTSE systems for a number of years, in collaboration with other national laboratories, academia, and industry stakeholders both on the hydrogen production as well as the hydrogen demand side. The modeling completed over the years on a large variety of projects has led to a wealth of knowledge at INL including in the area of the technoeconomic assessment (TEA) of HTSE systems. TEAs include process modeling of the HTSE systems to calculate system energy requirements and equipment sizing, followed by estimation of capital and operating costs to enable calculation of the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH). The TEA work performed has produced incremental improvements and tuning of the methods, assumptions, models, and results of the analyses as well as providing some opportunities for validating these results. The purpose of this document is to record the current baseline HTSE analyses led by INL to show the current status of assumptions and costs of these systems. Given the rapid development of this technology, the variety of suppliers entering the space, and the increasing attention government and industry are giving to such systems, this document may be updated on a periodic basis with updated analysis and assumptions. This document compiles various analyses results and approaches completed over a period of years into a single document to be used as a baseline going forward. It represents what the INL HTSE analysis group assumes to be the internal best estimate of the current operation, costs, and landscape of the HTSE industry state of the art capability for current SOEC technology in an Nth-of-a-Kind (NOAK) plant, which in this study is defined as existence of the manufacturing capacity to support previous deployment of N = 100 count of 25 MWe modular HTSE blocks (with modular equipment component cost reductions specified as following a 95% learning curve). That said, this is a public document and as such so no proprietary data was used or included in this report. There may be HTSE suppliers that have performance specifications, and cost estimates, and test data that differ from the analysis presented in this document. This document is meant to be a best conservative estimate of the technology and not an absolute reference.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2023

Dynamic Modeling of a Solar-To-Hydrogen Flexible High Temperature Steam Electrolysis Plant

Sustainble hydrogen production for use as a renewable combustible fuel and clean chemical feedstock is an important objective as the world moves towards a renewable energy future. High temperature steam electrolysis is a promising hydrogen production technology due to its reduced electric input that is offset by heat input into steam generation and steam superheating. An option to provide this heat is to use concentrating solar thermal technology that can sustainably provide heat input while renewable electricity is used for the electrolysis reaction. In this work, a solar-to-hydrogen high temperature steam electrolysis plant is designed and dynamically modeled, showing continuous hydrogen production by utilizing supplemental heating and efficient recuperative heating from the electrolysis product streams. Through this design, over 90% of the required heat input for the process can by met by a combination of solar and recuperative heat. Additionally, the plant can flexibility operate by ramping down hydrogen production and through flexible heat integration, which intelligently integrates solar heat based on solar conditions. Smooth operation with flexible hydrogen production is demonstrated which decreases electrical input during on-peak grid times and also decreases the total supplemental heat load over the course of a day from 26.1% to 24.5%. In addition, by using flexible heat integration, the plant can increase its solar heat usage by 4.1% relative to a base case. Both options for flexibility show efficient use of solar thermal energy to sustainably and continuously produce hydrogen.

Immonen, Jake (ORCID:0000000341231625)↗

DOE OSTI2023

Cutting-edge methods for amplifying the oxygen evolution reaction during seawater electrolysis: a brief synopsis

Electrochemical water splitting has been considered a clean and continual way for hydrogen (H 2 ) production. Direct seawater electrolysis is a potentially attractive technology due to the ample access to seawater and scarce freshwater resources in some regions. However, the presence of impurities (e.g., Cl - , Mg 2+ ) and the resulting corrosion and side reactions, such as the chloride oxidation reaction (ClOR), makes seawater electrocatalysis more challenging than that of fresh or alkaline water due to competition with the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) at the anode. Consequently, much effort has been devoted to developing approaches to enhance OER performance and suppress the ClOR. In this minireview, we summarize three general strategies for enhancing OER activity and selectivity in seawater electrolysis based on three different concepts: (1) the sole development of robust and high-performance OER catalysts in pure seawater electrolytes, (2) the introduction of additives to seawater electrolytes (e.g., alkalis and/or salts without chloride) to enhance the potential equilibrium gap between the ClOR and OER in combination with regular highly active OER catalysts, and (3) a combination of approaches (1) and (2). Finally, the current challenges and potential opportunities for green H 2 production from seawater electrolysis are briefly presented.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2024

Performance Validation of a Thermally Integrated 50 kW High Temperature Electrolyzer System

In the proposed project, INL and OxEon seek to improve the value proposition of hydrogen production by integrating reversible fuel cell operations at relatively small scale for distributed energy applications. This goal will be accomplished by converting a 50 kW solid oxide electrolysis cell or SOEC system into a reversible system that operates at 30 kW in electrolysis mode and approximately 10 kW in fuel cell mode. The reversible SOC system will be operated for over 3,000 hours using an improved catalyst in the fuel electrode. Steam for the electrolysis will come from an electric boiler Thermal Energy Distribution System that will be configured to mimic an industrial source of low-grade heat. Thermodynamic analysis will be performed to demonstrate the potential of the system to achieve >85% system efficiency in electrolysis mode. Finally, a technoeconomic analysis will be completed to show potential to produce hydrogen at a cost of $2/kg. The figure at the right indicates a target cost breakdown to achieve that goal.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2026

Correlating surface adsorbate configuration and electrochemical performance of IrO 2 during seawater-relevant electrolysis

Seawater electrolysis alleviates freshwater demand to produce clean hydrogen while eliminating the need for water purification steps. The anodic process, seawater oxidation, typically requires high overpotentials and yields low selectivity to oxygen via the oxygen evolution reaction (OER), primarily due to the competing chlorine evolution reaction (CER) and hypochlorite evolution reaction (HCER) in pH-neutral conditions. Here, combining in situ surface-enhanced Raman characterization, grand canonical density functional theory-based calculations, and kinetic Monte Carlo simulations, we report the evolution of surface adsorbate configurations driven by applied potential and pH during seawater-relevant OER over IrO 2 , a highly OER-active and chloride-corrosion-resistant catalyst. As a result, the chemical properties of active sites, and thereby the kinetics of OER and CER/HCER, are effectively tuned. However, it is revealed that there is no optimal combination of potential and pH to achieve both high activity and high selectivity for seawater-relevant OER. To address this limitation, we establish a correlation between activity/selectivity and surface adsorbate configurations, enabling the optimization of highly active and OER-selective IrO 2 -based catalysts in seawater-relevant oxidation by modulating the local adsorbate environment of active sites.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2023

HydroGEN and H2NEW Data Hub

HydroGEN is a multi-lab consortium focused on early-stage R&D in H2 production, supported by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office (HFTO). The consortium advances research and development (R&D) of innovative materials for advanced water splitting (AWS) technologies to enable clean, sustainable and low-cost ($1/kg H2) hydrogen production and fosters cross-cutting innovation using theory-guided applied materials R&D to advance all emerging water-splitting pathways for hydrogen production. Hydrogen from Next-generation Electrolyzers of Water (H2NEW) is a consortium of nine U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) national laboratories focused on making large-scale electrolyzers, which produce hydrogen from electricity and water, more durable, efficient, and affordable. The presentation introduces the HydroGEN data hub to the H2NEW consortium and encourages H2NEW members to use it to store and share data with team members and eventually the public. The two consortia share this data hub.

advanced water splitting technologies↗

DOE OSTI2021

Integrating Solar Energy, Desalination, and Electrolysis

Solar electricity enables the advancement and deployment of technologies that are strongly influenced by clean energy availability and cost. The economics of both desalination and hydrogen production from water electrolysis are dominated by the cost of energy, and the availability of inexpensive solar energy creates markets and offers incentives to the desalination and electrolyzer industries. In this report the production of high-purity water and hydrogen from seawater is focused on. Current electrolyzers require deionized water so they need to be coupled with desalination units. It is shown that such coupling is cost effective in hydrogen generation, and it also offers benefits to thermal desalination, which can utilize waste heat from electrolysis. Furthermore, such coupling can be optimized when electrolyzers operate at high current density, using low-cost solar and/or wind electricity, as such operation increases both hydrogen production and heat generation. Results of technoeconomic modeling of polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyzers define thresholds of electricity pricing, current density, and operating temperature that make clean electrolytic hydrogen cost competitive with hydrogen from steam methane reforming (SMR). By using 2020 hourly electricity pricing in California and Texas, it is estimated that hydrogen can be produced from seawater in coupled desalination-electrolyzer systems at prices near $2 kg -1 H 2 , reaching cost parity with hydrogen produced from SMR.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2023

Green Hydrogen: A Briefing for Land Managers

Decarbonization goals for the U.S. are emphasizing reliance on clean hydrogen produced from renewable resources. Hydrogen can be produced by splitting water, stored, transported, and converted to energy or chemicals. These activities require land, water, and energy. This fact sheet provides insight for federal and state land managers on the resources required to facilitate clean hydrogen production and related activities.

electrolysis↗

NASA NTRS1999

Electrolysis Propulsion Provides High-Performance, Inexpensive, Clean Spacecraft Propulsion

An electrolysis propulsion system consumes electrical energy to decompose water into hydrogen and oxygen. These gases are stored in separate tanks and used when needed in gaseous bipropellant thrusters for spacecraft propulsion. The propellant and combustion products are clean and nontoxic. As a result, costs associated with testing, handling, and launching can be an order of magnitude lower than for conventional propulsion systems, making electrolysis a cost-effective alternative to state-of-the-art systems. The electrical conversion efficiency is high (>85 percent), and maximum thrust-to-power ratios of 0.2 newtons per kilowatt (N/kW), a 370-sec specific impulse, can be obtained. A further advantage of the water rocket is its dual-mode potential. For relatively high thrust applications, the system can be used as a bipropellant engine. For low thrust levels and/or small impulse bit requirements, cold gas oxygen can be used alone. An added innovation is that the same hardware, with modest modifications, can be converted into an energy-storage and power-generation fuel cell, reducing the spacecraft power and propulsion system weight by an order of magnitude.

deGroot, Wim A.↗

DOE OSTI2024

Mechanical Characterization of Electrolyzer Membranes and Components Under Compression

Proton-exchange membrane (PEM) water electrolysis is a promising technology for producing clean hydrogen by electrochemically splitting water when paired with renewable energy sources. A major roadblock to improving electrolyzer durability is the mechanical degradation of the cell components, which requires an understanding of their mechanical response under device-relevant conditions. However, there is a lack of studies on the mechanical characterization of the PEM and other components, as well as and their interactions. This study aims to address this gap by using a custom-designed testing apparatus to investigate the mechanics of electrolyzer components in uniaxial compression at 25 and 80 °C. Findings show stress-strain response of components have a varying degree of nonlinearity owing to their distinct deformation mechanisms and morphologies, from porous structures to polymers. These results are used to develop an expression for compressive stress-strain response of Nafion membranes and then analyze the deformation of components under applied pressure by using a 1-D spring network model of cell assembly. This work provides a new understanding of mechanical responses of the electrolyzer membrane and cell components, which can help assess material design and cell assembly strategies for improved electrolyzer durability.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2024

Technical and Economic Assessment and Gap Analysis of Advanced Nuclear Reactor Integration with a Reference Oil Refinery

Efforts to identify the most-economic methods to decarbonize several sectors of the U.S. economy are underway. Industrial processes such as crude-oil refining rely heavily on energy-dense and easily stored and transported fossil fuels for powering their operations. Refineries use large amounts of energy, primarily derived from fossil sources to separate crude-oil components, break down heavier hydrocarbons into lighter compounds, remove impurities, reform hydrocarbon molecules, and generate steam and electricity for pumps and compressors and other various auxiliary systems. Crude-oil refining operations such as distillation, cracking, desulfurization, reforming, utilities systems and some offsite facilities collectively account for most of the energy consumption. Other operations such as hydrocracking or hydrotreating also require hydrogen for developing hydrogenation reactions which involve substantial heating to keep the reactors at high-temperature and pressure levels. All heat and energy demands are typically provided by natural gas (NG), oil, or other fuels, which makes refinery industry one of the most-difficult sectors to decarbonize. Nuclear power is a viable and energy-dense source of clean electricity, heat, and hydrogen to provide the large, sustainable energy supply that the refining industry demands. The U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) Integrated Energy Systems (IES) program is working to perform research and development, design, economic siting, and risk analysis. This state-of-the-art work will enable the first on-site demonstrations and commercial deployments of advanced small modular nuclear reactors (SMNRs) integrated with industries such as chemical production, refining, iron and steel making, and more. IES seeks to demonstrate the ability of advanced nuclear reactors to meet the heat and power demands of these industries while reducing carbon emissions in a sustainable and cost-competitive way. The primary objective of this research effort is to analyze industrial-scale SMNR integration intended to decarbonize refining facilities. The foreseen outcome is the provision of reliable, cost-competitive, and sustainable clean energy, alongside a reduction of carbon emissions. Specifically, the focus of this work lies on meeting the reference facilities’ heat and electricity demands with nuclear power while also supplying clean hydrogen via integrated high-temperature steam electrolysis (HTSE). This report presents a comprehensive technical and economic assessment of the integration of advanced nuclear reactors into a reference refinery, leveraging financial incentives from the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA). The evaluation aims to explore the potential economic benefits and challenges associated with incorporating advanced nuclear reactors into refinery operations, particularly in terms of energy efficiency, economic implications and environmental impact. By examining both the technical feasibility and economic viability, this analysis seeks to identify existing gaps and propose solutions for successful nuclear integration implementation. The findings are intended to provide valuable insights for stakeholders considering the adoption of advanced nuclear reactors in the refining sector. A refinery reference-plant was developed, using an open-source refinery model, Petroleum Refinery Lifecycle Inventory Model (PRELIM) and expert assessment, as a base case for comparison with various nuclear integration options. The capacity of 100 kbd/day (KBD) of heavy crude-oil feed was selected to represent a general coking-type refinery with deep conversion capabilities (incorporating heavy-oil upgrading with FCC, coking, and associated hydrotreating process units), using a heavy crude-oil feed, which represents about 70% of U.S. refineries configurations. A summary of all cases considered in this study is shown in Table 1.

13 HYDRO ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2024

Technoeconomic Analysis of Kraft Pulp Mill Integration with an Advanced Nuclear Reactor

This study focuses on post-combustion capture and oxy-fuel combustion for the boilers at the mill, as well as steam integration with the nuclear power plant. The primary goal of the research outlined in this report is to design, analyze, and document the integration of industrial-scale HTGR with a reference Kraft Pulp Mill. The purpose is to deliver reliable, cost-effective, and sustainable clean energy alternatives while reducing CO2 emissions. Specifically, this study focuses on 6 different scenarios that include carbon capture equipment and some of them use nuclear power to meet the heat and electricity needs of the reference plant. Also, 2 of these scenarios are created while also producing clean hydrogen through integrated High-Temperature Steam Electrolysis (HTSE). This report offers a detailed techno-economic assessment of different scenarios for a Kraft Pulp Mill, including an analysis of tax credits (section 45V, 45Q, and 48E) provided by the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) of 2022. The evaluation explores the potential economic benefits and challenges of incorporating different configurations, including nuclear energy, into Kraft Pulp Mill operations, with particular attention to energy efficiency, economic implications, and environmental impact. By assessing both the technical feasibility and economic viability, this analysis aims to identify existing gaps and propose solutions for the successful implementation of nuclear integration. The findings are intended to provide valuable insights for stakeholders considering the adoption of advanced nuclear reactors in the pulp and paper industries.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2022

High Temperature Steam Electrolysis Process Performance and Cost Estimates

Technology readiness levels (TRLs) of electrolysis systems have dramatically increased in recent years as the interest in clean hydrogen production and decarbonization of transportation, industrial and other sectors increases across the globe. This is especially true of high temperature steam electrolysis (HTSE) / solid oxide electrolysis cell (SOEC) systems which show promise of much higher system efficiencies than other more developed electrolysis technologies. This possibility of higher efficiencies of HTSE / SOEC systems has been previously assumed to be theoretically possible but in recent years it has become less theoretical and more realistic as an increasing amount of suppliers complete lab and pilot tests showing very promising results. Research in the areas of manufacturing techniques, material selection, electrode and electrolyte compositions, and balance of plant size and integration continues at a fast pace as an increasing number of suppliers both internationally and domestically become involved. The advantages of HTSE become more pronounced when HTSE is coupled with nuclear power plants (NPPs). This is because thermal energy produced by the nuclear reactor can be used in a series of heat transfer loops and heat exchangers to vaporize HTSE feedwater, which drastically improves the economics of the process. Idaho National Laboratory (INL) has been very involved in the research and modeling of HTSE systems for a number of years, in collaboration with other national laboratories, academia, and industry stakeholders both on the hydrogen production as well as the hydrogen demand side. The modeling completed over the years on a large variety of projects has led to a wealth of knowledge at INL including in the area of the technoeconomic assessment (TEA) of HTSE systems. TEAs include process modeling of the HTSE systems to calculate system energy requirements and equipment sizing, followed by estimation of capital and operating costs to enable calculation of the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH). The TEA work performed has produced incremental improvements and tuning of the methods, assumptions, models, and results of the analyses as well as providing some opportunities for validating these results. The purpose of this document is to record the current baseline HTSE analyses led by INL to show the current status of assumptions and costs of these systems. Given the rapid development of this technology, the variety of suppliers entering the space, and the increasing attention government and industry are giving to such systems, this document may be updated on a periodic basis with updated analysis and assumptions. This document compiles various analyses results and approaches completed over a period of years into a single document to be used as a baseline going forward. It represents what the INL HTSE analysis group assumes to be the internal best estimate of the current operation, costs, and landscape of the HTSE industry state of the art capability for current SOEC technology in an Nth-of-a-Kind (NOAK) plant, which in this study is defined as existence of the manufacturing capacity to support previous deployment of N = 100 count of 25 MWe modular HTSE blocks (with modular equipment component cost reductions specified as following a 95% learning curve). That said, This is a public document and as such so no proprietary data was used or included in this report. There may be HTSE suppliers that have performance specifications, and cost estimates, and test data that differ from the analysis presented in this document. This document is meant to be a best conservative estimate of the technology and not an absolute reference.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2022

HydroGEN Overview: A Consortium on Advanced Water Splitting Materials

advanced water splitting technologies↗