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NASA NTRS1994

The role of radiative acceleration in outflows from broad absorption line QSOs. 1: Comparison with O star winds

We investigate the role of radiation pressure in accelerating the broad absorption line (BAL) outflows in QSOs by comparing their properties with those of radiatively driven O star winds. We find that, owing to their lower column densities and higher velocity spreads, BAL outflows have only a few tens of strong resonance lines that are dynamically important, as compared with 10(exp 3) - 10(exp 4) lines in O star winds. We show that the combined radiative force (the 'force multiplier') declines more rapidly as a function of column density for BAL outflows than for O star winds. This is mainly attributed to the absence of lines from excited states in the BAL region. The absorbing gas in BAL outflows must have a small filling factor in order for radiative acceleration to be important dynamically. This allows the absorbing material to remain at a high enough density to maintain the ion species necessary for efficient radiative acceleration as well (as those responsible for the observed absorption), without the average flow density becoming so large that the absorbing matter cannot be accelerated by an increment larger than its own sound speed. The latter condition is necessary if the outflow is to tap a large portion of the incident photon momentum. Once a small filling factor is assumed, radiative acceleration can be more efficient in BAL outflows than in O stars. We show that terminal velocities of a few times 10(exp 4) km/sec can be expected, provided that the absorbing matter does not have to drag with it a much heavier substrate.

Arav, Nahum↗
NASA NTRS1995

Grain formation around carbon stars. 1: Stationary outflow models

Asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars are known to be sites of dust formation and undergo significant mass loss. The outflow is believed to be driven by radiation pressure on grains and momentum coupling between the grains and gas. While the physics of shell dynamics and grain formation are closely coupled, most previous models of circumstellar shells have treated the problem separately. Studies of shell dynamics typically assume the existence of grains needed to drive the outflow, while most grain formation models assume a constant veolcity wind in which grains form. Furthermore, models of grain formation have relied primarily on classical nucleation theory instead of using a more realistic approach based on chemical kinetics. To model grain formation in carbon-rich AGB stars, we have coupled the kinetic equations governing small cluster growth to moment equations which determine the growth of large particles. Phenomenological models assuming stationary outflow are presented to demonstrate the differences between the classical nucleation approach and the kinetic equation method. It is found that classical nucleation theory predicts nucleation at a lower supersaturation ratio than is predicted by the kinetic equations, resulting in significant differences in grain properties. Coagulation of clusters larger than monomers is unimportant for grain formation in high mass-loss models but becomes more important to grain growth in low mass-loss situations. The properties of the dust grains are altered considerably if differential drift velocities are ignored in modeling grain formation. The effect of stellar temperature, stellar luminosity, and different outflow velocities are investigated. The models indicate that changing the stellar temperature while keeping the stellar luminosity constant has little effect on the physical parameters of the dust shell formed. Increasing the stellar luminosity while keeping the stellar temperature constant results in large differences in grain properties. For small outflow velocities, grains form at lower supersaturation ratios and close to the stellar photosphere, resulting in larger but fewer grains. The reverse is true when grains form under high outflow velocities, i.e., they form at higher supersaturation ratios, farther from the star, and are much smaller but at larger quantities.

Egan, Michael P.↗
NASA NTRS1995

Formation of Hydrocarbons in the Outflows from Red Giants

The formation of hydrocarbons in the oxygen-rich outflows from red giants was studied. The existence of organic molecules in such outflows has been known for several years; however, their surprisingly high abundances has been a mystery since all of the carbon had been thought to be irretrievably locked up in CO, the most strongly bound molecule. CO is the first molecule to form from the atoms present in the star's extended atmosphere, and as strong stellar winds drive a cooling outflow, dust grains condense out. In oxygen-rich outflows, the dust is thought to be composed mainly of silicates and other metal oxides. Perhaps the noble metals can condense out in metallic form, in particular the relatively abundant transition metals iron and nickel. We proposed that perhaps the carbon reservoir held as CO can be accessed through a catalytic process involving the chemisorption of CO and H2 onto grains rich in metallic iron. CO and H2 are the two most abundant molecules in circumstellar outflows, and they both are known to dissociate on transition metal surfaces at elevated temperatures, freeing carbon to form organic molecules such as methane. We believe methane is a precursor molecule to the organics observed in oxygen-rich red giants. We have developed a nonequilibrium numerical model of a surface chemical (catalytic) process. Based on this model, we believe that methane can be formed under the conditions present in circumstellar outflows. Although the methane formation rates are exceptionally low under these conditions, over dynamical timescales, a significant amount of CO can be converted to methane and driven further out in the envelope, explaining the presence of organics there.

Roberge, Wayne↗
NASA NTRS1996

Chemical Characteristics of Continental Outflow from Asia to the Troposphere over the Western Pacific Ocean during September - October 1991: Results from PEM-West A

An important objective of the Pacific Exploratory Mission-West A (PEM-West A) was the chemical characterization of the outflow of tropospheric trace gases and aerosol particles from the Asian continent over the western Pacific Ocean. This paper summarizes the chemistry of this outflow during the period September - October 1991. The vertical distributions of CO, C2H6, and NO(x), showed regions of outflow at altitudes below 2 km and from 8 to 12 km. Mixing ratios of CO were approx. equals 130 parts per billion by volume (ppbv), approx. equals 1OOO parts per trillion by volume (pptv) for C2H6, and approx. equals 100 pptv for NO(x) in both of these regions. Direct outflow of Asian industrial materials was clearly evident at altitudes below 2 km, where halocarbon tracer compounds such as CH3CCl3 and C2Cl4 were enhanced about threefold compared to aged Pacific air. The source attribution of species outflowing from Asia to the Pacific at 8-12 km altitude was not straightforward. Above 10 km altitude there were substantial enhancements of NO(y), O3, CO, CH4, SO2, C2H6, C3H8, C2H2, and aerosol Pb-210 but not halocarbon industrial tracers. These air masses were rich in nitrogen relative to sulfur and contained ratios of C2H2/CO and C3H8/C2H6 (approx. equals l.5 and 0.1 respectively) indicative of several- day-old combustion emissions. It is unclear if these emissions were of Asian origin, or if they were rapidly transported to this region from Europe by the high wind speeds in this tropospheric region (60 - 70 m/s). The significant cyclonic activity over Asia at this time could have transported to the upper troposphere emissions from biomass burning in Southeast Asia or emissions from the extensive use of various biomass materials for cooking and space heating. Apparently, the emissions in the upper troposphere were brought there by wet convective systems since water-soluble gases and aerosols were depleted in these air masses. Near 9 km altitude there was a distinct regional outflow that appeared to be heavily influenced by biogenic processes on the Asian continent, especially from the southeastern area. These air masses contained CH4 in excess of 1800 ppbv, while CO2 and OCS were significantly depleted (349 - 352 ppmv and 450 - 500 pptv, respectively). This signature seemingly reflected CH4 emissions from wetlands and rice paddies with coincident biospheric uptake of tropospheric CO2 and OCS.

Talbot, R. W.↗
NASA NTRS2000

Cloud Microphysics in Hurricane Outflows: Observations in 'Bonnie' (1998) at 12 km Altitude

The water balance of a hurricane is controlled by boundary layer inflow, near vertical motion in the eyewall causing coalescence precipitation at above and residual ice precipitation at below freezing temperatures, and cirrus outflow at below -40 C aloft. In this paper we address the question of efficiency of water removal by this cirrus outflow which is important for the release of latent heat at high altitudes and its role in the dynamic flow at that level. During NASA's 1998 Convection and Moisture Experiment campaign we acquired microphysical outflow data in order to (1) determine the release and redistribution of latent heat near the top of hurricanes, (2) aid in TRMM algorithm development for remote sensing of precipitation, and (3) determine the optical/radiative characteristics of hurricane outflow. The data were acquired with Particle Measuring Systems two dimensional imaging spectrometers. On 23 August and again during the hurricane's landfall on 26 August, 1998, the NASA DC-8 aircraft penetrated hurricane 'Bonnie' four times each near 200 hPa pressure altitude. The eye crossing times were determined by (1) zero counts of cloud particles, (2) approximately 5 C increases in static and potential temperatures, and (3) minima in speeds and changes of direction of horizontal winds. The vertical winds showed shear between -6 m per second and +4 m per second and tangential winds approached 30 m per second in the eyewall. The particle volumes in the eyewall (determined by the pixels the particles shadowed in the direction of flight [x-direction] and normally to it by the number of diodes that they shadowed [y-direction]) ranged between 0.5 and 5.0 cubic centimeters per cubic meter. With a particle density near 0.2 g per cubic centimeter (determined from in situ melting and evaporation on a surface collector), the 1.0 g per meter corresponding mass of cloud ice ranged between 0.27 and 2.7 g per kilograms yielding horizontal fluxes between 8.1 and 81 g per square meters per second. The outflow ice was concentrated in crystals of a modal size of 190 micrometers. The particle size distributions were heavily skewed toward sizes with 98% of all cirrus particles smaller than the modal size comprising, however, only 20% of the mass. Thus the smaller than modal size particles dominantly affected the optical/radiative characteristics of the cloud, whereas the larger than modal size crystals determined the ice mass, hence dominated latent heating. Questions to be addressed relate to the origin of individual ice particles as the hurricane evolved and the likelihood of pristine and aggregate particle formation under the complicated conditions of rotation and outflow in the eyewall.

Pueschel, Rudolf F.↗
NASA NTRS2011

X-Ray Evidence for the Accretion Disc-Outflow Connection in 3C 111

We present the spectral analysis of three Suzaku X-ray Imaging Spectrometer observations of 3C III requested to monitor the predicted variability of its ultrafast outflow on approximately 7 d time-scales. We detect an ionized iron emission line in the first observation and a blueshifted absorption line in the second, when the flux is approximately 30 per cent higher. The location of the material is constrained at less than 0.006 pc from the variability. Detailed modelling supports an identification with ionized reflection off the accretion disc at approximately 20-100rg from the black hole and a highly ionized and massive ultrafast outflow with velocity approximately 0.1c, respectively. The outflow is most probably accelerated by radiation pressure, but additional magnetic thrust cannot be excluded. The measured high outflow rate and mechanical energy support the claims that disc outflows may have a significant feedback role. This work provides the first direct evidence for an accretion disc-outflow connection in a radio-loud active galactic nucleus, possibly linked also to the jet activity.

Tombesi, Frank↗
NASA NTRS2022

A 30kpc Spatially Extended Clumpy and Asymmetric Galactic Outflow atz∼1.7

We image the spatial extent of a cool galactic outflow with fine-structure Fe ii* emission and resonant Mg ii emission in a gravitationally lensed star-forming galaxy at z = 1.70347. The Fe ii* and Mg ii (continuum-subtracted) emissions span out to radial distances of ∼14.33 and 26.5 kpc, respectively, with maximum spatial extents of ∼21 kpc for Fe ii* emission and ∼30 kpc for Mg ii emission. Mg ii emission is patchy and covers a total area of ∼184 kpc2, constraining the minimum area covered by the outflowing gas to be ∼13% of the total area. Mg ii emission is asymmetric and shows ∼21% more extended emission along the decl. direction. We constrain the covering fractions of the Fe ii* and Mg ii emission as a function of radial distance and characterize them with a power-law model. The Mg ii 2803 emission line shows two kinematically distinct emission components and may correspond to two distinct shells of outflowing gas with a velocity separation of Δv ∼ 400 km s−1. By using multiple images with different magnifications of the galaxy in the image plane, we trace the Fe ii* and Mg ii emissions around three individual star-forming regions. In all cases, both the Fe ii* and Mg ii emissions are more spatially extended compared to the star-forming regions traced by the [O ii] emission. These findings provide robust constraints on the spatial extent of the outflowing gas and, combined with outflow velocity and column density measurements, will give stringent constraints on mass-outflow rates of the galaxy.

Ahmed Shaban↗
NASA NTRS2023

MAXI J1848-015: The first detection of relativistically moving outflows from a globular cluster X-ray binary

Over the past decade, observations of relativistic outflows from outbursting X-ray binaries in the Galactic field have grown significantly. In this work, we present the first detection of moving and decelerating radio-emitting outflows from an X-ray binary in a globular cluster. MAXI J1848−015 is a recently discovered transient X-ray binary in the direction of the globular cluster GLIMPSE-C01. Using observations from the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array, and a monitoring campaign with the MeerKAT observatory for 500 days, we model the motion of the outflows. This represents some of the most intensive, long-term coverage of relativistically moving X-ray binary outflows to date. We use the proper motions of the outflows from MAXI J1848−015 to constrain the component of the intrinsic jet speed along the line of sight, βint COS θejection, to be =0.19 ± 0.02. Assuming it is located in GLIMPSE-C01, at 3.4 kpc, we determine the intrinsic jet speed, βint = 0.79 ± 0.07, and the inclination angle to the line of sight, θejection = 76° ± 2°. This makes the outflows from MAXI J1848−015 somewhat slower than those seen from many other known X-ray binaries. We also constrain the maximum distance to MAXI J1848−015 to be 4.3 kpc. Finally, we discuss the implications of our findings for the nature of the compact object in this system, finding that a black hole primary is a viable (but as-of-yet unconfirmed) explanation for the observed properties of MAXI J1848−015. If future data and/or analysis provide more conclusive evidence that MAXI J1848−015 indeed hosts a black hole, it would be the first black hole X-ray binary in outburst identified in a Galactic globular cluster.

A. Bahramian↗
NASA NTRS1988

A search for molecular outflows toward the pre-main-sequence objects

A search for molecular outflows has been conducted toward a sample of 71 young stellar objects dominated by optically selected pre-main-sequence stars. Molecular outflows ranging in size from 0.07 to about 5 pc, with expansion velocities from 6 to 60 km/s, have been detected toward 20 of these objects and in an additional six infrared objects not included in the original survey. The apparent ages of the outflows are from 1000 to 500,000 yr; about half of the observed outflows are bipolar, with the rest showing a wide variety of morphologies. It is found that outflows driven by low-luminosity objects tend to be more bipolar than those driven by high-luminosity objects. The implications of the results of the study are discussed.

Levreault, Russell M.↗
NASA NTRS1990

Magnetic field and spatial structure of bipolar outflow sources

Deep K band images of three bipolar outflow sources (Cep A, GL 490, and R Mon) are presented. The polarization of background or embedded stars close to these star-forming regions has been measured in the I band to determine the local projected magnetic field direction. For Cep A the outflow direction and the magnetic field are almost parallel as is the case for most bipolar outflow sources. This alignment is poorer in the case of R Mon while GL 490 is a peculiar case with the outflow direction almost perpendicular to the local magnetic field. No indication was found for a distortion of the magnetic field close to the collimating disks of the outflows.

Hodapp, Klaus-Werner↗
NASA NTRS1991

Mass outflow in the nearby proto-planetary system, Beta Pictoris

Previous spectral studies of circumstallar dust around the nearby, candidate proto-planetary system, Beta Pictoris, has detected only infalling gas. The lack of detectable mass outflow has been critical in the interpretation of the origin of the circumstellar gas and in our understanding of the evolutionary status of the Beta Pictoris system. IUE high-dispersion spectra are presented which show, in addition to infall, the presence of mass outflow, with a maximum observed outflow velocity of -60 km/s, and a corresponding instantaneous outflow rate of 1.1 x 10 to the -14th solar mass/yr, or 1.1 x 10 to the -11th Jupiter mass/yr. This mass outflow rate and terminal velocity are comparable to the magnitudes of mass infall rates and terminal velocities observed from late 1986 through early 1988. The implications of these observations on our understanding of the mechanisms producing infall from the surrounding circumstellar disk are discussed, as are the implications for our understanding of the evolutionary status of the Beta Pic system.

Bruhweiler, Frederick C.↗
NASA NTRS1997

A study of the evolutionary stages of IRAS sources and outflows in the Mon OB1 dark cloud

An ongoing project aiming to relate the evolutionary stages of the Infrared Astronomy Satellite (IRAS) sources in the Mon OB1 dark cloud to the morphology and energetics of outflows associated with some of these sources, is reported on. Previous evolutionary classifications of IRAS sources are refined and potential class O objects are identified. The fully-sampled CO maps of the outflows in this cloud are presented. These observations yield information on outflow structure, kinematics and excitation conditions. Low-intensity, high velocity gas is observed in the youngest outflows. This emission is characterized by relatively flat line wings at the highest velocities in spectral line profiles obtained at the peaks of the outflow emission.

Wolf-Chase, G.↗
NASA NTRS2000

Northwestern Tharsis Latent Outflow Activity Mars

Previously defined outflow channels, which are indicated by relict landforms similar to those observed on Earth, signify ancient catastrophic flood events on Mars. These conspicuous geomorphic features are some of the most remarkable yet profound discoveries made by geologists to date. These outflow channels, which debouched tremendous volumes of water into topographic lows such as Chryse, Utopia, Elysium, and Hellas Planitiae, may represent the beginning of warmer and wetter climatic periods unlike the present-day cold and dry Mars. In addition to the previously identified outflow channels, observations permitted by the newly acquired Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) data have revealed a system of gigantic valleys, referred to as the northwestern slope valleys (NSV), that are located to the northwest of a huge shield volcano, Arsia Mons, western hemisphere of Mars. These features generally correspond spatially to gravity lows similar to the easternmost, circum-Chryse outflow channel systems. Geologic investigations of the Tharsis region suggest that the large valley system pre-dates the construction of Arsia Mons and its extensive associated lava flows of mainly Late Hesperian and Amazonian age and coincides stratigraphically with the early development of the circum-Chryse outflow channel systems that debouch into Chryse Planitia. This newly identified system, the NSV, potentially signifies the largest flood event(s) ever recorded for the solar system. Additional information is contained in original extended abstract.

Dohm, J. M.↗
NASA NTRS1996

The IRS 1 circumstellar disk, and the origin of the jet and CO outflow in B5

We report the discovery of the inner edge of the high velocity CO outflow associated with the bipolar jet originating from IRS 1 in Barnard 5 and the first ever resolution of its circumstellar disk in the 2.6 mm dust continuum and C18O. From high spatial resolution observations made with the Owens Valley Millimeter Array we are able to locate the origin of the outflow to within approximately 500 AU on either side of IRS 1 and apparently at the edge of, or possibly within, its circumstellar disk. The orientation of the continuum disk is perpendicular to the highly collimated jet outflow recently seen in optical emission at much farther distances. The disk has been detected in C18O giving a disk mass approximately 0.16 M (solar). Our HCO+ and HCN maps indicate significant chemical differentiation in the circumstellar region on small scales with HCO+ tracing an extended disk of material. The 12CO interferometer maps of the outflow show two conelike features originating at IRS 1, the blue one fanning open to the northeast and the red one to the southwest. The vertices of the cones are on either side of the circumstellar disk and have a projected opening angle of about 90 degrees. The intrinsic opening angle is in the range of 60 degrees-90 degrees which leads to significant interaction between outflow and infall.

NASA Center JPL↗
NASA NTRS2012

Low-Altitude Reconnection Inflow-Outflow Observations During a 2010 November 3 Solar Eruption

For a solar flare occurring on 2010 November 3, we present observations us- ing several SDO/AIA extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) passbands of an erupting flux rope followed by inflows sweeping into a current sheet region. The inflows are soon followed by outflows appearing to originate from near the termination point of the inflowing motion an observation in line with standard magnetic reconnection models. We measure average inflow plane-of-sky speeds to range from approximately 150 - 690 km s-1 with the initial, high-temperature inflows being the fastest. Using the inflow speeds and a range of Alfven speeds, we estimate the Alfvenic Mach number which appears to decrease with time. We also provide inflow and outflow times with respect to RHESSI count rates and find that the fast, high- temperature inflows occur simultaneously with a peak in the RHESSI thermal light curve. Five candidate inflow-outflow pairs are identified with no more than a minute delay between detections. The inflow speeds of these pairs are measured to be approximately 10(exp 2) km s-1 with outflow speeds ranging from approximately 10(exp 2) - 10(exp 33 km s-1 indicating acceleration during the reconnection process. The fastest of these outflows are in the form of apparently traveling density enhancements along the legs of the loops rather than the loop apexes themselves. These flows could possibly either be accelerated plasma, shocks, or waves prompted by reconnection. The measurements presented here show an order of magnitude difference between the retraction speeds of the loops and the speed of the density enhancements within the loops presumably exiting the reconnection site.

Savage, Sabrina L.a↗
NASA NTRS2013

Unification of X-ray Winds in Seyfert Galaxies: From Ultra-fast Outflows to Warm Absorbers

The existence of ionized X-ray absorbing layers of gas along the line of sight to the nuclei of Seyfert galaxies is a well established observational fact. This material is systematically outflowing and shows a large range in parameters. However, its actual nature and dynamics are still not clear. In order to gain insights into these important issues we performed a literature search for papers reporting the parameters of the soft X-ray warm absorbers (WAs) in 35 type 1 Seyferts and compared their properties to those of the ultra-fast outflows (UFOs) detected in the same sample. The fraction of sources with WAs is >60 per cent, consistent with previous studies. The fraction of sources with UFOs is >34 per cent, >67 per cent of which also show WAs. The large dynamic range obtained when considering all the absorbers together, spanning several orders of magnitude in ionization, column, velocity and distance allows us, for the first time, to investigate general relations among them. In particular, we find significant correlations indicating that the closer the absorber is to the central black hole, the higher the ionization, column, outflow velocity and consequently the mechanical power. In all the cases, the absorbers continuously populate the whole parameter space, with the WAs and the UFOs lying always at the two ends of the distribution. These evidence strongly suggest that these absorbers, often considered of different types, could actually represent parts of a single large-scale stratified outflow observed at different locations from the black hole. The UFOs are likely launched from the inner accretion disc and the WAs at larger distances, such as the outer disc and/or torus. We argue that the observed parameters and correlations are, to date, consistent with both radiation pressure through Compton scattering and magnetohydrodynamic processes contributing to the outflow acceleration, the latter playing a major role. Most of the absorbers, especially the UFOs, show a sufficiently high mechanical power (at least approx 0.5 per cent of the bolometric luminosity) to provide a significant contribution to active galactic nuclei (AGN) feedback and thus to the evolution of the host galaxy. In this regard, we find possible evidence for the interaction of the AGN wind with the surrounding environment on large scales.

Unification↗
NASA NTRS2020

Massive Galaxies Impede Massive Outflows

A set of 66 3D hydrodynamical simulations explores how galactic stellar mass affects three-phase, starburst-driven outflows. Simulated velocities are compared to two basic analytic models: with and without a gravitational potential. For stellar mass <1010 M ⊙, simulated velocities match those of both analytical models and are unaffected by the potential; above they reduce significantly as expected from the analytic model with gravity. Gravity also affects total outflow mass and each of the three phases differently. Outflow masses in the hot, warm, and cold phases each scale with stellar mass as $\mathrm{log}{M}_{* }\,=$ −0.25, −0.97, and −1.70, respectively. Thus, the commonly used Chevalier & Clegg analytic model should be modified to include gravity when applied to higher-mass galaxies. In particular, using M82 as the canonical galaxy to interpret hydrodynamical simulations of starburst-driven outflows from higher-mass galaxies will underestimate the retarding effect of gravity. Using the analytic model of Johnson & Axford with realistic thermalization efficiency and mass loading, I find that only galaxy masses lesssim10(exp 11.5) M(⊙) can outflow.

Ryan Tanner↗
NASA NTRS2023

Tracking Nonradial Outflows in Extreme Ultraviolet and White Light Solar Images

Understanding the solar corona requires knowledge of its dynamics through its various layers and subsequent connectivity to the heliosphere. This requires understanding the nature of the outflows and the physical transitions through the middle corona (∼1.5–6.0 Rs). While this region is still inaccessible to in situ measurements, remote sensing observations are available, but their interpretation can be controversial due to line-of-sight effects and the nonradial motion of outflowing structures close to the Sun (≤3.0 Rs). In this work, we describe a method to mitigate these challenges by generating nonradial height–time profiles of outflows by using advanced image processing techniques. The northern and southern boundaries of a large equatorial streamer during the 2008 solar minimum were identified in STEREO/SECCHI solar images, using two different methodologies based on thresholds of brightness and piecewise polynomial function fitting. To address line-of-sight issues, we used tomographic reconstruction of the 3D distribution of the coronal electron density based on SECCHI/COR2 images. Spectral analysis of the time series of the position angle of the streamer boundary revealed its oscillatory nature at some heights at 36–48 and 10.5–14.6 hr. Dividing the distance between the northern and southern streamer boundaries in equal parts at each height, we obtained nonradial height–time paths from which we generated nonradial profiles of corona/solar wind plasma outflow. We tracked outflows as they moved uninterruptedly from the Sun in EUVI, through COR1 and into COR2. Finally, we discuss the preliminary results of nonradial plane-of-sky velocities for a coronal mass ejection and two small-scale features.

Nathalia Alzate↗