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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS2023

Ruggedness Evaluation of ASTM International Standard Test Methods for Shape Memory Materials: E3098 Standard Test Method for Mechanical Uniaxial Pre-strain and Thermal Free Recovery of Shape Memory Alloys

This paper evaluates the ruggedness testing of the recently released ASTM International E3098 Standard Test Method for Mechanical Uniaxial Pre-strain and Thermal Free Recovery of Shape Memory Alloys. The ruggedness experiment was designed with eight runs in two replicates, consisting of seven factors: strain rate (ė), heating and cooling rates (Ṫ heat and Ṫ cool , respectively), upper and lower cycle temperatures (UCT and LCT, respectively), hold time (t hold ), and minimum load (F min ) imparted on the samples. The results indicate that the strain rate factor had no effect on any result variable, whereas the minimum load factor had a large effect on several result variables including the austenite start and martensite finish temperatures as well as most of the strain measurements from the thermal cycle. The lower cycle temperature factor had a large effect on the stress at maximum strain during pre-straining (e i ), denoted by S i , at ~7.2 MPa, as well as the A f , at 5.47 °C. Closely following the LCT effect, Ṫ heat was found to have a large effect on the austenite start temperature (A s ), at a value of ~2.72 °C. The testing methodology, analysis techniques, and resulting conclusions on the ruggedness of the test method are presented.

Shape memory alloys↗
DOE OSTI2026

Design, characterization and shape recovery behavior of 3D/4D printed shape memory polymers (SMPs)

Shape memory polymers (SMPs) represent a paradigm shift in material science, uniquely capable of undergoing reversible shape transformations triggered by external stimuli, positioning them as pivotal in developing next-generation biomedical devices, aerospace components, and adaptive structures. Extensive research has been done on SMPs with a major focus on high-temperature programming methods, which can limit energy efficiency and applicability with temperature-sensitive materials. Additionally, while various SMP blends have demonstrated great potential, limited work has been done on the suitability for 3D printing these materials, particularly under high-strain and ambient temperature programming conditions. In this study, a three-component optimized SMP composition was evaluated by 3D printing via the Material Extrusion (MEX) technique and investigating its ambient temperature-programming behavior at high strains. The SMP formulation studied was a tailored blend of thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), polycaprolactone (PCL), and an octadecane diol-based copolymer (OBC) that exhibits robust shape memory behavior, high strain tolerance, and efficient force generation. Rigorous thermal, mechanical, and shape recovery analyses, along with optimized printing parameters and consistent shape recovery rates of up to 90%, were achieved under dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), even under ambient programming conditions. This work demonstrates the SMP composition’s potential for adaptive, self-deployable systems with 4D printing characteristics ideal for bio-inspired structures and artificial muscle fibers.

Sudan, Kavish [University of Louisville, KY]↗
NASA NTRS2006

Effect of Thermomechanical Processing on the Microstructure, Properties, and Work Behavior of a Ti50.5 Ni29.5 Pt20 High-Temperature Shape Memory Alloy

TiNiPt shape memory alloys are particularly promising for use as solid state actuators in environments up to 300 C, due to a reasonable balance of properties, including acceptable work output. However, one of the challenges to commercializing a viable high-temperature shape memory alloy (HTSMA) is to establish the appropriate primary and secondary processing techniques for fabrication of the material in a required product form such as rod and wire. Consequently, a Ti(50.5)Ni(29.5)Pt20 alloy was processed using several techniques including single-pass high-temperature extrusion, multiple-pass high-temperature extrusion, and cold drawing to produce bar stock, thin rod, and fine wire, respectively. The effects of heat treatment on the hardness, grain size, room temperature tensile properties, and transformation temperatures of hot- and cold-worked material were examined. Basic tensile properties as a function of temperature and the strain-temperature response of the alloy under constant load, for the determination of work output, were also investigated for various forms of the Ti(50.5)Ni(29.5)Pt20 alloy, including fine wire.

Noebe, Ronald↗
NASA NTRS1996

Constitutive Models for Shape Memory Alloy Polycrystals

Shape memory alloys (SMA) exhibiting the superelastic or one-way effects can produce large recoverable strains upon application of a stress. In single crystals this stress and resulting strain are very orientation dependent. We show experimental stress/strain curves for a Ni-Al single crystal for various loading orientations. Also shown are model predictions; the open and closed circles indicate recoverable strains obtained at various stages in the transformation process. Because of the strong orientation dependence of shape memory properties, crystallographic texture can be expected to play an important role in the mechanical behavior of polycrystalline SMA. It is desirable to formulate a constitutive model to better understand and exploit the unique properties of SMA.

Comstock, R. J., Jr.↗
NASA NTRS2011

Effect of Graphene Addition on Shape Memory Behavior of Epoxy Resins

Shape memory polymers (SMPs) and composites are a special class of smart materials known for their ability to change size and shape upon exposure to an external stimulus (e.g. light, heat, pH, or magnetic field). These materials are commonly used for biomedical applications; however, recent attempts have been made towards developing SMPs and composites for use in aircraft and space applications. Implementing SMPs and composites to create a shape change effect in some aircraft structures could potentially reduce drag, decrease fuel consumption, and improve engine performance. This paper discusses the development of suitable materials to use in morphing aircraft structures. Thermally responsive epoxy SMPs and nanocomposites were developed and the shape memory behavior and thermo-mechanical properties were studied. Overall, preliminary results from dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) showed that thermally actuated shape memory epoxies and nanocomposites possessed Tgs near approximately 168 C. When graphene nanofiller was added, the storage modulus and crosslinking density decreased. On the other hand, the addition of graphene enhanced the recovery behavior of the shape memory nanocomposites. It was assumed that the addition of graphene improved shape memory recovery by reducing the crosslinking density and increasing the elasticity of the nanocomposites.

Williams, Tiffany↗
NASA NTRS2021

Meta-aerogels: Auxetic Shape-memory Polyurethane Aerogels

Shape-memory poly(isocyanurate-urethane) (PIR-PUR) aerogels are low-density monolithic nanoporous solids that remember and return to their permanent shape through a heating actuation step. Herein, through structural design at the macro scale, the shape-memory response is augmented with an auxetic effect manifested by a negative Poisson’s ratio of approximately -0.8 at 15% compressive strain. Thus, auxetic shape-memory PIR-PUR monoliths experience volume contraction upon compression at a temperature above the glass transition temperature of the base polymer (Tg ~ 30 °C), and they can be stowed indefinitely in that temporary shape by cooling below Tg. By heating back above Tg, the compressed/shrunk form expands back to their original shape/size. This technology is relevant to a broad range of industries spanning the commercial, aeronautical, and aerospace sectors. The materials are referred to as meta-aerogels and their potential applications include minimally invasive medical devices, soft robotics, and in situations where volume is at a premium, as for example for storage of deployable space structures and planetary habitats during transport to the point of service.

Sadeq Malakooti↗
NASA NTRS1996

Improved Damage Resistant Composite Materials Incorporating Shape Memory Alloys

Metallic shape memory alloys (SMA) such as nitinol have unique shape recovery behavior and mechanical properties associated with a material phase change that have been used in a variety of sensing and actuation applications. Recent studies have shown that integrating nitinol-SMA actuators into composite materials increases the composite material's functionality. Hybrid composites of conventional graphite/epoxy or glass/epoxy and nitinol-SMA elements can perform functions in applications where monolithic composites perform inadequately. One such application is the use of hybrid composites to function both in load bearing and armor capacities. While monolithic composites with high strength-to-weight ratios function efficiently as loadbearing structures, because of their brittle nature, impact loading can cause significant catastrophic damage. Initial composite failure modes such as delamination and matrix cracking dissipate some impact energy, but when stress exceeds the composite's ultimate strength, fiber fracture and material perforation become dominant. One of the few methods that has been developed to reduce material perforation is hybridizing polymer matrix composites with tough kevlar or high modulus polyethynylene plies. The tough fibers increase the impact resistance and the stiffer and stronger graphite fibers carry the majority of the load. Similarly, by adding nitinol-SMA elements that absorb impact energy through the stress-induced martensitic phase transformation, the composites' impact perforation resistance can be greatly enhanced. The results of drop-weight and high velocity gas-gun impact testing of various composite materials will be presented. The results demonstrate that hybridizing composites with nitinol-SMA elements significantly increases perforation resistance compared to other traditional toughening elements. Inspection of the composite specimens at various stages of perforation by optical microscope illustrates the mechanisms by which perforation is initiated. Results suggest that the out-of-plane transverse shear properties of the composite and nitinol elements have a significant effect on the perforation resistance. Applications that can utilize the hybrid composites effectively will also be presented with the experimental studies.

Paine, Jeffrey S. N.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Experimental Characterization of Additively Manufactured Nickel-Titanium Shape Memory Alloy Heat Pipes

Shape memory alloys (SMA) have been identified for use in spacecraft components as replacement for conventional deployment mechanisms. They may be used in thermal management components such as radiators to create self-deploying radiators. One SMA, NiTi, has also been developed for additive manufacturing processes. Heat pipes are a common way to create highly effective and lightweight spaceflight radiators, and heat pipes can also be made from NiTi and related alloys. The wick is the critical element of a functioning heat pipe, and recent progress over the past years has led to the development of additively manufactured heat pipe wicks in various materials. The combination of these efforts is the focus of this project: creating an additively manufactured, shape memory alloy self-deploying heat pipe radiator. This paper will focus on the experimental characterization of these additively manufactured NiTi heat pipes. The heat pipe coupons were additively manufactured by direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), with an integral liquid cooled condenser. Heat is input to the heat pipe via a thin film heater. Thermocouples were spot welded to the heat pipes to measure temperature at several axial locations. The heat pipes were tested with two working fluids: water and ethanol. Ethanol is not an ideal working fluid for heat pipes but is useful in characterizing them because it wets well to a wide variety of surfaces. Water is in general a superior working fluid for heat pipes, but its contact angle and therefore wicking performance strongly depends on the surface chemistry of the surface it is in contact with. A particular measurement of interest in this test is the evaporator to condenser thermal conductance, which will be compared in the full paper to recently published correlations for additively manufactured heat pipes. Experimental results for two straight geometry and one bellows geometry heat pipe will be presented. The bellows geometry is of interest for condenser of the self-deploying radiator design.

Additive manufacturing↗
NASA NTRS2018

The Effect of Thin Film Adhesives on Mode I Interlaminar Fracture Toughness in Carbon Fiber Composites with Shape Memory Alloy Inserts

Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) was placed within Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC) panels alongside film adhesives to examine bonding. Double cantilever beam (DCB) testing was performed using ASTM D5528. C-scanning was performed before testing, modal acoustic emissions (MAE) were monitored during testing, and microscopy performed post-test. Data was analyzed using modified beam theory (MBT), compliance calibration (CC) and modified compliance calibration (MCC) methods. Fracture toughness for control specimens was higher than previously reported due to fiber-bridging. Specimens with SMAs and adhesives stabilized crack propagation. Results revealed SMA-bridging; a phenomenon mimicking fiber-bridging which increased the load and fracture toughness of SMA specimens.

Derek J Quade↗
NASA NTRS2005

Potential High-Temperature Shape-Memory-Alloy Actuator Material Identified

Shape-memory alloys are unique "smart materials" that can be used in a wide variety of adaptive or "intelligent" components. Because of a martensitic solid-state phase transformation in these materials, they can display rather unusual mechanical properties including shape-memory behavior. This phenomenon occurs when the material is deformed at low temperatures (below the martensite finish temperature, Mf) and then heated through the martensite-to-austenite phase transformation. As the material is heated to the austenite finish temperature Af, it is able to recover its predeformed shape. If a bias is applied to the material as it tries to recover its original shape, work can be extracted from the shape-memory alloy as it transforms. Therefore, shape-memory alloys are being considered for compact solid-state actuation devices to replace hydraulic, pneumatic, or motor-driven systems.

Noebe, Ronald D.↗
NASA NTRS2010

Fast-Response-Time Shape-Memory-Effect Foam Actuators

Bulk shape memory alloys, such as Nitinol or CuAlZn, display strong recovery forces undergoing a phase transformation after being strained in their martensitic state. These recovery forces are used for actuation. As the phase transformation is thermally driven, the response time of the actuation can be slow, as the heat must be passively inserted or removed from the alloy. Shape memory alloy TiNi torque tubes have been investigated for at least 20 years and have demonstrated high actuation forces [3,000 in.-lb (approximately equal to 340 N-m) torques] and are very lightweight. However, they are not easy to attach to existing structures. Adhesives will fail in shear at low-torque loads and the TiNi is not weldable, so that mechanical crimp fits have been generally used. These are not reliable, especially in vibratory environments. The TiNi is also slow to heat up, as it can only be heated indirectly using heater and cooling must be done passively. This has restricted their use to on-off actuators where cycle times of approximately one minute is acceptable. Self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) has been used in the past to make porous TiNi metal foams. Shape Change Technologies has been able to train SHS derived TiNi to exhibit the shape memory effect. As it is an open-celled material, fast response times were observed when the material was heated using hot and cold fluids. A methodology was developed to make the open-celled porous TiNi foams as a tube with integrated hexagonal ends, which then becomes a torsional actuator with fast response times. Under processing developed independently, researchers were able to verify torques of 84 in.-lb (approximately equal to 9.5 Nm) using an actuator weighing 1.3 oz (approximately equal to 37 g) with very fast (less than 1/16th of a second) initial response times when hot and cold fluids were used to facilitate heat transfer. Integrated structural connections were added as part of the net shape process, eliminating the need for welding, adhesives, or mechanical crimping. Inexpensive net-shape processing was used, which reduces the cost of the actuator by over a factor of 10 over nonporous TiNi made by hot drawing of tube or electrical discharge machining. By forming the alloy as an open-celled foam, the surface area for heat transfer is dramatically increased, allowing for much faster response times. The technology also allows for netshape fabrication of the actuator, which allows for structural connections to be integrated into the actuator material, making these actuators significantly less expensive. Commercial applications include actuators for concepts such as the variable area chevron and nozzle in jet aircraft. Lightweight tube or rod components can be supplied to interested parties.

Jardine, Peter↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Design and Analysis of Shape Memory Spring Tires for Martian and Lunar Rover Vehicles

Shape memory alloys (SMAs) have played an important role in various innovative engineering and medical applications, such as aerospace actuators, vibration damping devices, and coronary stents. In applications, shape memory alloys are commonly utilized in two fundamentally different ways: (i) making use of the superelasticity/ pseudoelasticity (SE/PE) phenomena, as in applications in biomedical engineering, and (ii) taking advantages of the shape memory effect (SME), as is used for actuators. Their ability to act in such vastly different capacities is mainly due to their unique capability to recover large amounts of deformation produced by either applied stresses or temperature changes. One recent emerging application in use of SMAs has been in the area of non-pneumatic tire designs for Martian or Lunar roving vehicles. These vehicles require tires that are capable of traversing rugged terrain while withstanding extreme temperatures and atmospheric conditions. Inspired by the flexible wire mesh tires used on three Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) missions to the Moon on Apollo 15, 16, and 17, a new compliant tire technology was developed by the NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC) and Goodyear Tire & Rubber, known as the Spring Tire. The Spring Tire consists of several hundred coiled springs woven into a flexible mesh and formed into the shape of a tire. Like the LRV wire mesh tires, the original Spring Tires were made from spring steel and were prone to permanent deformation when undergoing high localized loads. Later, a new iteration of this technology was invented, known as the ‘Superelastic Tire’. This new technology incorporated the use of superelastic SMA springs, which could effectively undergo approximately 30 times more reversible deformation than the steel spring. It also provided even greater durability and allowed for more flexibility in design, such as the use of other structural forms to reduce mass or increase load carrying capacity. Because of the unique nature of both the SMA material and the complex interactions between the springs, designing Spring Tires for a specific application requires extensive effort. Historically, design decisions have relied on full-scale empirical testing; however, this is very expensive and time consuming, especially when multiple iterations are needed. Therefore, developing a large-scale, robust, and predictive numerical model entailing complex spring interactions and the shape memory material behavior within a tire construct is the first essential step towards a successful design program. The current work focuses on implementation of the user-defined Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) model, otherwise known as SMA-GVIPs, in the Finite Element analysis (FEA) program ABAQUS for large-scale simulations of the GRC-developed Spring Tires made of SMA. The novelty of this work lies in the thorough, detail-oriented, and computationally efficient finite element analysis of full-scale SMA tires. A well-thought material characterization plan followed by model validation and a systemic sensitivity study on SMA tires has never been reported in the previous literature. The main objective of this study is to help the team improve and optimize the structural design of the SMA tires through in-depth numerical analysis and sensitivity studies. Various design variables (wire diameter, coil diameter, pitch, bead angle, and number of springs) were varied to study their influence on the global load-displacement response of the tire construct. A detailed investigation of the three-dimensional stress states was also carried out to enhance our understanding of the local changes as the tire goes through global deformation. It was concluded that a robust numerical model with a good predictive capability, together with a thoughtfully crafted sensitivity study can result in improved design iterations required to reach a desired tire performance while, significantly reducing manufacturing, labor and testing expenses. A summary of the Finite Element (FE) model construction will be presented together with a description of the user-defined SMA model, characterization process, experimental results, model validation, and numerical sensitivity study results.

shape memory alloys↗
NASA NTRS2004

Potential High-Temperature Shape-Memory Alloys Identified in the Ti(Ni,Pt) System

"Shape memory" is a unique property of certain alloys that, when deformed (within certain strain limits) at low temperatures, will remember and recover to their original predeformed shape upon heating. It occurs when an alloy is deformed in the low-temperature martensitic phase and is then heated above its transformation temperature back to an austenitic state. As the material passes through this solid-state phase transformation on heating, it also recovers its original shape. This behavior is widely exploited, near room temperature, in commercially available NiTi alloys for connectors, couplings, valves, actuators, stents, and other medical and dental devices. In addition, there are limitless applications in the aerospace, automotive, chemical processing, and many other industries for materials that exhibit this type of shape-memory behavior at higher temperatures. But for high temperatures, there are currently no commercial shape-memory alloys. Although there are significant challenges to the development of high-temperature shape-memory alloys, at the NASA Glenn Research Center we have identified a series of alloy compositions in the Ti-Ni-Pt system that show great promise as potential high-temperature shape-memory materials.

Noebe, Ronald D.↗
NASA NTRS2018

A Study of Shape Memory Polymer Based Slat-Cove Filler

Aircraft noise reduction is an application of current intense interest for which smart materials show significant potential. Specifically, the aeroacoustic noise produced by the unsteady aerodynamic flow about the leading-edge high-lift device, such as leading-edge slat, of typical transport-aircraft wings is of particular interest. Concepts with the most promise to mitigate this noise source, most notably the slat-cove filler concept, have focused on highly reconfigurable structures that change shape between different phases of the flight envelope. These shape changes often involve large deformation, which has stimulated the consideration of shape memory materials. In recent years, shape memory materials (SMMs) have drawn greater interest for applications such as smart fabrics, intelligent medical devices, self-deployable space structures, morphing structures and packaging. Compared to other shape memory materials, like shape memory alloys (SMAs) or shape memory ceramics (SMCs), shape memory polymers (SMPs) have desirable advantages such as high elastic deformation to enable large shape change, broad tailorability of mechanical properties, potential biocompatibility and biodegradability, ductility, light weight and ease of processing. However, SMPs still have some critical disadvantages such as insufficient mechanical and thermal characteristics for structural applications, low recovery stress, and long response time. The new LaRC shape memory thermosetting polymer composite (LaRC-SMPC) discussed herein was synthesized with nontoxic monomers and conductive/magnetic fillers to yield enhanced thermal/mechanical characteristics and faster response times. LaRC-SMPCs with a variety of fiber reinforcements [Kevlar®, carbon fiber (standard and thin-ply), and carbon-nanotube (CNT) sheet] were fabricated to tailor the physical properties and test for suitability as a slat-cove filler (SCF). The performance of SCF prototypes fabricated with the developed LaRC-SMPCs was evaluated using a bench-top test apparatus. The SCFs made of Kevlar® fiber fabric or carbon fiber fabric infused shape memory polymer composite (SMPC) exhibited kinking during simulated deployment and stowage, which can be problematic during operation. The SCF made of CNT sheet/SMP composite did not exhibit kinking, but the deployment was sluggish compared to carbon fiber fabric/SMP composite. This report documents the evolution of designing SMPCs as slat-cove fillers for aircraft noise reduction. In the course of the investigation, several 2 approaches were investigated to address shortcomings in material characteristics based on performance requirements of operational slat-cove fillers.

Kang, Jin Ho↗
NASA NTRS1988

Shape memory alloys: New materials for future engineering

Shape memory is a new material property. An alloy which experiences relative severe plastic deformation resumes its original shape again after heating by 10 to 100 C. Besides simple shape memory, in similar alloys there is the second effect where the change in shape is caused exclusively by little temperature change. In pseudo-elasticity, the alloy exhibits a rubber-like behavior, i.e., large, reversible deformation at little change in tension. Beta Cu and beta NiTi alloys have been used in practice. The probability is that soon alloys based on Fe will become available. Recently increasing applications for this alloy were found in various areas of technology, even medical technology. A review with 24 references is given, including properties, production, applications and fundamental principles of the shape memory effect.

Hornbogen, E.↗
NASA NTRS2007

Effects of Stoichiometry on Transformation Temperatures and Actuator-Type Performance of NiTiPd and NiTiPdX High-Temperature Shape Memory Alloys

High-temperature shape memory NiTiPd and NiTiPdX (X=Au, Pt, Hf) alloys were produced with titanium equivalent (Ti+Hf) compositions of 50.5, 50.0, 49.5, and 49.0 at.%. Thermo-mechanical testing in compression was used to evaluate the transformation temperatures, transformation strain, work output, and permanent deformation behavior of each alloy to study the effects of quaternary alloying and stoichiometry on high-temperature shape memory alloy behavior. Microstructural evaluation showed the presence of second phases for all alloy compositions. No load transformation temperatures in the stoichiometric alloys were relatively unchanged by Au and Pt substitutions, while the substitution of Hf for Ti causes a drop in transformation temperatures. The NiTiPd, NiTiPdAu and NiTiPdHf alloys exhibited transformation temperatures that were highest in the Ti-rich compositions, slightly lower at stoichiometry, and significantly reduced when the Ti equivalent composition was less than 50 at.%. For the NiTiPdPt alloy, transformation temperatures were highest for the Ti-rich compositions, lowest at stoichiometry, and slightly higher in the Ni-rich composition. When thermally cycled under constant stresses of up to 300 MPa, all of the alloys had transformation strains, and therefore work outputs, which increased with increasing stress. In each series of alloys, the transformation strain and thus work output was highest for stoichiometric or Ti-rich compositions while permanent strain associated with the constant-load thermal cycling was lowest for alloys with Ni-equivalent-rich compositions. Based on these results, basic rules for optimizing the composition of NiTiPd alloys for actuator performance will be discussed.

Bigelow, Glen S.↗
DOE OSTI2025

DEVELOPMENT OF INEXPENSIVE HIGH TEMPERATURE NITI-BASED SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS FOR POWDER BED ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

NiTi and NiTi-based Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) exhibit a reversible solid-state phase transformation from martensite to austenite driven by thermal energy. High temperature (Mf>100°C) SMAs are martensite at room temperature and can be fabricated into solid-state actuators that return to a pre-programmed shape against a designed load after heating to transformation threshold. Reactive as-fabricated additively manufactured parts (4-D printing) is the current state of the art in manufacturing of SMAs but requires compositions compliant to rapid solidification. Existing actuator designs are developed from commercially available, highly investigated material compositions. However, existing high temperature high performance (high actuation strain, low thermal hysteresis) shape memory alloys contain significant (>10% at.) portions of high-cost Platinum Group Metals (PGMs). It is of significant scientific interest to investigate material compositions that are peer performing or superior to PGMs whose constituent elements represent a significant cost savings. Shape memory alloy properties vary significantly with small (0.1% at.) compositional changes making robust investigative sample sets very large. Computational material design can be deployed to shrink the compositional space of possible alloy combinations and reduce the experimental load in material discovery. Investigating shape memory effect (SME) and validating process additive process parameters for a single novel composition is cost intensive in both time and consumed materials. Additionally, sub-optimal processing, oxygen, or solidification rate sensitivity could render additively manufacturing specimens without micro, macro cracks, or significant chemical variance impossible. Unfortunately, such failure susceptibility cannot be simulated. Therefore, a research pathway to validate novel shape memory alloy compositions for powder bed fusion additive manufacturing without the need for powdered feedstock is also proposed. This research investigates novel high temperature shape memory alloys for actuators without platinum group alloying elements to discover one that could be commercially viable as an additive manufacturing feedstock.

Sundermann, Tayler↗