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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 37 records · Page 2
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

DBD plasma-assisted ethanol steam reforming for green H 2 production: Process optimization through response surface methodology (RSM)

Herein this work investigates ethanol steam reforming (ESR) to produce hydrogen (H 2 ) in a dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma reactor. A five-level, three-factor experiment design was performed using a response surface methodology (RSM) to evaluate the combined effects of the three process parameters, including discharge power, total flow rate, and ethanol-to-water (EtOH/H 2 O) molar ratio on the plasma-assisted ESR reaction. Quadratic regression models were employed in RSM to fit the experimental results and present the correlation between process parameters and targeted responses (EtOH conversion, H 2 yield, H 2 selectivity, and specific energy requirement (SER) for H 2 production). The results suggested that the EtOH/H 2 O molar ratio is considered to have the most significant effect on the EtOH conversion and H 2 , H 2 selectivity, while the total flow rate is the most significant parameter determining SER for H 2 production. Process optimization demonstrated the optimal process conditions, including a discharge power of 55.9 W, a total flow rate of 26.7 ml/min, and an EtOH/H 2 O molar ratio equal to 0.34. A validation test was performed and confirmed the feasibility of the optimization process.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2023

Sorption-enhanced steam reforming of toluene using multifunctional perovskite phase transition sorbents in a chemical looping scheme

Abstract Sorption-enhanced steam reforming (SESR) of toluene (SESRT) using catalytic CO 2 sorbents is a promising route to convert the aromatic tar byproducts formed in lignocellulosic biomass gasification into hydrogen (H 2 ) or H 2 -rich syngas. Commonly used sorbents such as CaO are effective in capturing CO 2 initially but are prone to lose their sorption capacity over repeated cycles due to sintering at high temperatures. Herein, we present a demonstration of SESRT using A- and B-site doped Sr 1− x A’ x Fe 1− y B’ y O 3− δ (A’ = Ba, Ca; B’ = Co) perovskites in a chemical looping scheme. We found that surface impregnation of 5–10 mol% Ni on the perovskite was effective in improving toluene conversion. However, upon cycling, the impregnated Ni tends to migrate into the bulk and lose activity. This prompted the adoption of a dual bed configuration using a pre-bed of NiO/ γ –Al 2 O 3 catalyst upstream of the sorbent. A comparison is made between isothermal operation and a more traditional temperature-swing mode, where for the latter, an average sorption capacity of ∼38% was witnessed over five SESR cycles with H 2 -rich product syngas evidenced by a ratio of H 2 : CO x > 4.0. XRD analysis of fresh and cycled samples of Sr 0.25 Ba 0.75 Fe 0.375 Co 0.625 O 3- δ reveal that this material is an effective phase transition sorbent—capable of cyclically capturing and releasing CO 2 without irreversible phase changes occurring.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

Catalytic and electrocatalytic performance of Sr(Ti 0.3 Fe 0.7 Ru 0.07 )O 3-δ for applications in solid oxide fuel cells supplied with ethanol steam reforming mixtures

We discuss how direct utilization of alcohols in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) can improve the conversion efficiency by using excess heat for internal reforming and simplify the system balance of plant. Thanks to their scarce carbon- formation tendency, perovskite oxide anodes are promising alternatives to Ni-based cermets. Here we show that Sr(Ti 0.3 Fe 0.7 Ru 0.07 )O 3-δ (STF-Ru) exsolution anodes provide both catalytic reforming activity and electro- chemical activity with steam/ethanol (S/E) mixtures at 3:1 and 2:1 M ratio between 700 and 800 °C. Electrolyte- supported scandia stabilized zirconia SOFCs with STF-Ru anodes and Sr 0.95 Ti 0.3 Fe 0.7 O 3-δ (STF) cathodes are reasonably stable in the 3:1 S/E mixture over 20 h at 800 °C, with maximum power density of 195 mW/cm 2 and 140 mW/cm 2 at 0.7 V. Deactivation instead occurs with the 2:1 S/E mixture. Comparatively, cells with Ni-YSZ anodes rapidly coke and fail under the same conditions. Ethanol steam reforming experiments in a fixed bed powder reactor reveal that, above 650 °C, gas phase reactions convert ethanol to CO, hydrogen, acetaldehyde and ethylene, while STF-Ru catalyzes steam reforming. Thermogravimetric and Raman characterizations show that a moderate amount of carbon is deposited on the STF-Ru surface, which is more amorphous than the disruptive carbon which degrades Ni-YSZ.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Sr 2 MnO 4 as a reactive CO 2 sorbent for sorption-enhanced steam reforming of biogas to green hydrogen

Sorption-enhanced steam biogas reforming is an attractive approach for hydrogen production from renewable resources, with the performance of the CO 2 sorbents being a critical factor. In this study, Sr 2 MnO 4 was investigated as a redox-activated CO 2 sorbent for sustainable hydrogen production from biogas. The Sr 2 MnO 4 sorbents exhibited a CO 2 sorption capacity of over 26 g per 100 g of sorbents, along with excellent cyclic stability in thermogravimetric analysis. Complete regeneration of the sorbent was achieved with a relatively small temperature swing (100 °C). Fixed-bed reactor experiments further demonstrated the application of Sr 2 MnO 4 sorbents in sorption-enhanced steam biogas reforming. Biogas simulants with varying CO 2 contents were converted to ~94 vol% H 2 before CO 2 breakthrough. Stable CO 2 capacity and hydrogen production were maintained over 20 cycles. In addition, optimization of the regeneration duration enabled the generation of highly pure CO 2 and more efficient use of O 2 . These results support the feasibility of biogas-to‑hydrogen conversion with net-negative carbon emissions through integration with CO 2 capture and sequestration.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2022

The effect of silica oxide support on the catalytic activity of nickel-molybdenum bimetallic catalyst toward ethanol steam reforming for hydrogen production

This work investigates the effects of molybdenum promoter and silica oxide (SiO 2 ) support morphology on the ethanol steam reforming (ESR) performance of Nickel-Molybdenum (NiMo) bimetallic catalysts. Ordered mesoporous SiO 2 (SBA-15) and commercial SiO 2 supports were used as the oxide support materials. The synthesized catalysts were prepared via the wet impregnation method and characterized via XRD, H 2 -TPR, BET, FTIR, and Raman techniques. This study shows that NiMo bimetallic catalyst supported on SBA-15 has superior catalytic activity and better coking resistance at an intermediate temperature of 600 ⁰C than commercial SiO 2 supported catalysts. The presence of a uniform mesoporous structure of SBA-15 with an average pore diameter of ~ 2 nm can obstruct the carbon formation, leading to improved coking resistance. The catalytic enhancement of NiMo bimetallic catalysts toward ESR can also be linked to the ability of Mo promoter in enhancing the interaction between NiMo nanoparticles and SiO 2 support materials and restraining agglomeration of Ni nanoparticles, which results in further improvement of NiMo nanoparticle dispersion and inhibit its sintering. The NiMo bimetallic catalysts supported on SBA-15 illustrated the high H 2 yield of ~ 54% and carbon conversion of ~ 89% with the excellent stability for ESR performed at 600 ⁰C and the steam-to-carbon ratio of 2 over 65 hours.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Tuning Methanol Transformation Pathways for Sustainable Steam Reforming: Na-Promotion Effects on Ag/m-ZrO 2 Catalysts

This work investigates the influence of sodium promotion on Ag/m-ZrO 2 catalysts for methanol steam reforming (MSR), focusing on activity, selectivity, surface chemistry, and mechanistic pathways. Temperature programmed reduction (TPR), XANES/EXAFS, CO 2 TPD, DRIFTS, and temperature programmed surface reaction methods were combined with fixed bed MSR testing to develop an integrated structure–function understanding of Na-modified Ag-ZrO 2 interfaces. Na addition systematically increases surface basicity, stabilizes strongly basic O 2− sites, and weakens the ν(CH) vibrational mode of surface formate, thereby facilitating C–H bond scission and accelerating decarboxylation to CO 2 . At moderate promoter levels (0.5–1.0 wt.% Na), the catalysts show significantly enhanced CO 2 selectivity and increased conversion relative to unpromoted Ag/m-ZrO 2 , while CH 4 formation remains negligible. Excessive Na (≥1.8 wt.%) leads to slower formate decomposition, greater carbonate stabilization, and suppressed conversion, revealing a narrow optimum around 1 wt.% Na. Short-term stability testing demonstrates steady conversion and product selectivity for both unpromoted and Na-promoted catalysts, with the latter maintaining markedly higher CO 2 selectivity. Although Pt/YSZ retains far superior intrinsic activity at ~10× higher space velocity, Ag offers a cost-advantaged alternative where lower cost metals are desirable. Collectively, these findings show that Na promotion enables tunable MSR selectivity on Ag/m-ZrO 2 by directing formate decomposition toward the CO 2 -forming pathway.

CO2 selectivity↗
DOE OSTI2026

Suppressing CO formation in low-temperature methanol steam reforming via Ce-modified CuZnGa layered oxide catalysts

Cu-based layered double hydroxides (LDHs) are widely recognized as effective catalysts for low-temperature methanol steam reforming, yet achieving high hydrogen productivity together with near-complete suppression of CO formation remains challenging. Here, we report the synthesis and evaluation of a series of CuZnGa LDH-derived catalysts and Ce-modified analogues prepared via an aqueous miscible organic method, which enables high metal dispersion and precise structural control. The optimized CuZnGa catalyst exhibits a hydrogen production rate of 16.9 µmol H 2 ·g cat −1 ·s −1 at 180 °C with an H 2 /CO ratio exceeding 3500, outperforming many state-of-the-art low-temperature systems. Importantly, the incorporation of small amounts of Ce further suppresses CO formation while maintaining high hydrogen productivity. Combined spectroscopic characterization and density functional theory calculations reveal that Ce is incorporated into the LDH lattice by substituting Ga 3+ sites up to a critical threshold, beyond which highly dispersed CeO x species are formed. These species provide mobile lattice oxygen that participates in a Mars-van Krevelen-type pathway, selectively oxidizing CO and suppressing the reverse water-gas shift reaction. This study establishes a clear relationship between Ce speciation, oxygen mobility, and catalytic selectivity in LDH-derived systems. The resulting catalysts demonstrate the potential of interface-engineered Cu-based materials for efficient low-temperature hydrogen production with minimal CO contamination.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Methanol Steam Reforming on Ru/m-ZrO 2 : Sodium Promotion of the CO 2 -Forming Pathway

Sodium (Na) promotion of Ru/m-ZrO 2 was investigated to elucidate how an alkali modification tunes selectivity in methanol steam reforming (MSR). H 2 -TPR/XANES/EXAFS show that Na increases surface basicity and strengthens Ru–O interactions, shifting RuO x reduction and H 2 spillover to a higher temperature. DRIFTS reveals Na-induced red shifts of the formate ν(CH) band and changes in OCO vibrational splitting, consistent with weakening of the formate C–H bond and an altered binding geometry. CO 2 -TPD confirms a monotonic shift toward stronger basic sites with increasing Na concentrations. Under MSR conditions, Na selectively increases CO2 concentration at the expense of CO. At ~80% conversion and 325 °C, CO 2 selectivity increases from 12.0% (unpromoted) to 16.2, 21.0, and 26.5% for 0.5, 1.0, and 1.8% Na, respectively; at ~300 °C and ~66–69% conversion, CO 2 selectivity increases from 8.6% to 23.7% at 1.8% Na. Transient MSR experiments further show earlier and larger H 2 evolution upon Na addition, corroborating the promotion of the dehydrogenation/decarbonylation route to CO 2 + H 2 . We propose that Na increases basicity and modifies the Ru–support interface to favor formate dehydrogenation/decarboxylation, thereby increasing the H 2 yield and lowering CO formation. Ru’s higher-energy, less occupied d-band stabilizes CO and oxygenated intermediates more strongly in the reforming environment, making the CO-forming pathway more resistant to suppression than on Pt.

CO2 selectivity↗
DOE OSTI2023

Isotope effect in formaldehyde steam reforming on Pt/m-ZrO 2 : Insight into chemical promotion by alkalis

Infrared spectroscopy, temperature programmed reaction mass spectrometry (TP-reaction/MS), and catalyst testing were used to investigate alkali promotion of dehydrogenation selectivity during formaldehyde steam reforming (FSR) on Pt/m-ZrO 2 . In a preferred pathway, formaldehyde reacts with water forming hydrogen and formate, followed by forward formate decomposition to CO 2 and H 2 . Alkali-doping of 2 wt% Pt/m-ZrO 2 increases catalyst basicity, which weakens the formate C-H bond promoting formate dehydrogenation / decarboxylation. Promotion by alkali in FSR was observed through a formate nu(CH) band shift to lower wavenumbers in infrared spectroscopy, and through a decrease in the normal isotope effect in switching from H-to D-labeled formalde-hyde in TP-reaction/MS.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2021

Simulation of 12-bed vacuum pressure-swing adsorption for hydrogen separation from methanol-steam reforming off-gas

This study focuses on analysis of a 12-bed vacuum pressure-swing adsorption (VPSA) process capable of purifying hydrogen from a ternary mixture (H 2 /CO 2 /CO 75/24/1 mol%) derived from methanol-steam reforming. The process produces 9 kmol H 2 /h with less than 2 ppm and 0.2 ppm of CO2 and CO, respectively, to supply a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell. The process model is developed in Aspen Adsorption® using the “uni-bed” approach. A parametric study of H 2 purity and recovery with respect to adsorption pressure, adsorbent height, activated carbon:zeolite ratio, feed composition, and number of beds is performed. Results show 12-bed VPSA can meet the H 2 purity goals, with H 2 recovery as high as 75.75%. Adsorption occurs at 7 bar, the column height is 1.2 m, and the adsorbent ratio is 70%:30%. Furthermore, a 4-bed VPSA can achieve the same purity goals as the 12-bed process, but H 2 recovery decreases to 61.34%.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2022

CH 4 steam reforming on Pt + Pd/Al 2 O 3 monolith: impact of Mn 0.5 Fe 2.5 O 4 spinel addition

The performance of Pt + Pd/Al 2 O 3 monolith catalysts was analyzed under a feed (H 2 + CO + CH 4 + NO + O 2 + H 2 O + CO 2 ) simulating the exhaust gas of stoichiometric natural gas vehicles (NGVs). The flow reactor results show enhanced low temperature (<400 °C) CH 4 oxidation activity under cyclic lean/rich feed modulation and with Mn 0.5 Fe 2.5 O 4 (MFO) spinel addition to the platinum group metal (PGM) catalyst. In the absence of the MFO spinel, the PGM catalyst can achieve full CH 4 conversion, but the presence of spinel in the catalyst limits the high temperature (>500 °C) CH 4 conversion. The depletion of gas phase O 2 , as indicated by the detection of products CO and H 2 in the reactor effluent at higher temperature and CH 4 conversion, portends the emergence of steam reforming of CH 4 (SRM). To investigate the cause of the detrimental impact of spinel under the high temperature, net rich regime, we show through a combination of SRM experiments and post-reaction catalyst characterization that SRM is negatively impacted by the accumulation of Mn and Fe spinel species on the PGM catalyst. This is due to the migration of the base metal species and potential encapsulation and blockage of PGM active sites. The latter is supported by density functional theory (DFT) calculations that indicate favorable metal oxide decoration of active Pt step sites. Lastly, a zoned catalyst design is developed that mitigates the detrimental metals migration while exploiting the methane conversion enhancement afforded by spinel oxides under oxygen rich conditions.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Mechanistic insights into the catalytic methanol steam reforming performance of Cu/ZrO 2 catalysts by in situ and operando studies

Here, we assessed the catalytic properties of the Cu/ZrO 2 interface in methanol and formaldehyde steam reforming (MSR and FSR) on powder catalysts by using a comparative approach with respect to the influence of the ZrO 2 polymorph support structure (monoclinic (m-)ZrO 2 vs. tetragonal (t-)ZrO 2 ), its synthesis routine and the choice of the precursor material on the CO 2 selectivity. Our studies reveal that ZrO 2 exhibits a pronounced versatility as a support material and its catalytic properties depend most strongly on its surface properties governed by its synthesis, especially by the choice of the Zr precursor. The way of combining the support with copper introduces an additional layer of complexity, but its influence on the MSR performance is limited to a modification of the conditions provided by the ZrO 2 support. Exploiting the comparative approach regarding the Cu-ZrO 2 catalysts in FSR and MSR – including the pure support materials – in combination with in situ Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy shows that the CO observed in MSR on Cu/m-ZrO 2 can be attributed to a spillover of formaldehyde to the support. Side reactions of m-ZrO 2 are suppressed at lower temperatures due to its lack of highly reactive sites, resulting in a CO 2 -selective MSR performance. In Cu/t-ZrO 2 , however, the amount of CO is higher and a combination of a formaldehyde spillover to the support and a Cu-ZrO 2 phase boundary yielding CO leads to the lower CO 2 selectivity of these samples. An elevated number of defects and reactive Lewis acidic and Brønsted basic centers of t-ZrO 2 explains this increased activity towards side reactions in contrast to Cu/m-ZrO 2 catalysts.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2021

The sol–gel autocombustion as a route towards highly CO 2 -selective, active and long-term stable Cu/ZrO 2 methanol steam reforming catalysts

The adaption of the sol-gel autocombustion method to the Cu/ZrO 2 system opens new pathways for the specific optimisation of the activity, long-term stability and CO 2 selectivity of methanol steam reforming (MSR) catalysts. Calcination of the same post-combustion precursor at 400 °C, 600 °C or 800 °C allows accessing Cu/ZrO 2 interfaces of metallic Cu with either amorphous, tetragonal or monoclinic ZrO 2 , influencing the CO 2 selectivity and the MSR activity distinctly different. While the CO 2 selectivity is less affected, the impact of the post-combustion calcination temperature on the Cu and ZrO 2 catalyst morphology is more pronounced. A porous and largely amorphous ZrO 2 structure in the sample, characteristic for sol-gel autocombustion processes, is obtained at 400 °C. This directly translates into superior activity and long-term stability in MSR compared to Cu/tetragonal ZrO 2 and Cu/monoclinic ZrO 2 obtained by calcination at 600 °C and 800 °C. The morphology of the latter Cu/ZrO 2 catalysts consists of much larger, agglomerated and non-porous crystalline particles. Based on aberration-corrected electron microscopy, we attribute the beneficial catalytic properties of the Cu/amorphous ZrO 2 material partially to the enhanced sintering resistance of copper particles provided by the porous support morphology.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
NASA NTRS1981

Steam reforming of n-hexane on pellet and monolithic catalyst beds. A comparative study on improvements due to heat transfer

Monolithic catalysts with higher available active surface areas and better thermal conductivity than conventional pellets beds, making possible the steam reforming of fuels heavier than naphtha, were examined. Performance comparisons were made between conventional pellet beds and honeycomb monolith catalysts using n-hexane as the fuel. Metal-supported monoliths were examined. These offer higher structural stability and higher thermal conductivity than ceramic supports. Data from two metal monoliths of different nickel catalyst loadings were compared to pellets under the same operating conditions. Improved heat transfer and better conversion efficiencies were obtained with the monolith having higher catalyst loading. Surface-gas interaction was observed throughout the length of the monoliths.

Source record↗
DOE OSTI2021

Insights into the Mechanism of Methanol Steam Reforming Tandem Reaction over CeO 2 Supported Single-Site Catalysts

We demonstrated how the special synergy between a noble metal single site and neighboring oxygen vacancies provides an "ensemble reaction pool" for high hydrogen generation efficiency and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) selectivity of a tandem reaction: methanol steam reforming. Specifically, the hydrogen generation rate over single site Ru 1 /CeO 2 catalyst is up to 9360 mol H 2 per mol Ru per hour (579 mL H2 g Ru -1 s -1 ) with 99.5% CO 2 selectivity. Reaction mechanism study showed that the integration of metal single site and O vacancies facilitated the tandem reaction, which consisted of methanol dehydrogenation, water dissociation, and the subsequent water gas shift (WGS) reaction. In addition, the strength of CO adsorption and the reaction activation energy difference between methanol dehydrogenation and WGS reaction play an important role in determining the activity and CO 2 selectivity. Our study paves the way for the further rational design of single site catalysts at the atomic scale. Furthermore, the development of such highly efficient and selective hydrogen evolution systems promises to deliver highly desirable economic and ecological benefits.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

A Study of How LaFeO 3 and CaTiO 3 Supports Affect the Oxidation, Hydrogenation, and Methane Steam Reforming Activity of Pt and Ni Catalysts

The structure and catalytic properties of Pt and Ni supported on thin films of LaFeO 3 and CaTiO 3 , prepared by Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD), were investigated. X-Ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) show that reduction at 1073 K causes Pt-Fe intermetallic compound formation for Pt/LaFeO 3 . For Pt/CaTiO 3 , 1073-K reduction induces local decomposition of the CaTiO 3 with migration of Ti to the Pt. Reduced Pt/LaFeO 3 and Pt/CaTiO 3 exhibited CO-oxidation activity similar to that for Pt supported on MgAl 2 O 4 but were much less active for propane oxidation and hydrogenation of 1-hexene and toluene. In contrast, Ni/CaTiO 3 behaved similarly to a conventional supported Ni catalyst for the methane-steam-reforming (MSR) and 1-hexene hydrogenation. There was also no evidence for local decomposition of the perovskite in the vicinity of the Ni particles. Furthermore, the results obtained in this study demonstrate that metal-perovskite interactions that affect reactivity are specific to each component.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

Process Considerations for the Production of Hydrogen via Steam Reforming of Oxygenated Gases from Biomass Pyrolysis and Other Conversion Processes

Abstract In 2021, average CO 2 emissions was 9.7 g CO 2 /g H 2 produced, primarily based on steam methane reforming (SMR) technology that currently dominates hydrogen production. The substitution of natural gas (NG) and other fossil feedstocks in SMRs with renewable gases may be considered as an option for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This analysis explores process impacts and constraints associated with the potential introduction of biogenic gases into SMRs. The results indicate that replacing NG in the fuel train of the SMR, followed by partial replacement of NG in the feed train may be a feasible approach. For the CO‐ and CO 2 ‐rich gas compositions assumed in this analysis the results indicate that feed train may accommodate up to 25 mole % of biogenic gases using allowances in existing designs and/or with small modifications, while maintaining similar hydrogen output. NG substitution in higher proportions require more major changes because of increased flow rates and heat exchange requirements in the system. Biogenic gases with lower CO 2 and higher calorific values are advantageous for NG substitution, and dry reforming using the CO 2 present in the feed gas can reduce steam consumption and increase process efficiency within limits where coking does not become a new constraint.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2022

Stable Catalysts for Combined Dry and Steam Reforming of Methane and Carbon Dioxide

The specific aim of this project is to develop a comprehensive understanding of cheaper and more stable methane and carbon dioxide reforming catalysts with an optimal introduction of steam to reduce carbon deposits that typically prevent the catalytic systems from transferring to commercial implementation. The work was proposed as a two-year project with the end goal of to show a reliable catalyst system run for at least 400 hours at temperatures less than 800 °C with less than 5% loss of activity of the catalyst and a carbon monoxide to hydrogen product ratio of at least 1:1. The project went for one-year and met the end of year milestone by developing two strategies (use of a cerium co-catalyst and introducing 5% water) that reduced the carbon deposition rates by at least 20% relative to the baseline 10% NiMgAlO methane reforming of CO 2 at < 800 °C in order to shown technical feasibility of the concept.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗