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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Ion Clusters Reveal the Sources, Impacts, and Drivers of Freshwater Salinization

Population growth, land use change, climate change, and natural resource extraction are driving the salinization of freshwater resources worldwide. Reversing these trends will require data-centric approaches that identify salt sources, environmental drivers, and ecosystem responses. In this study, we applied principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering to identify ion covariance patterns, or “ion clusters,” in Broad Run, an urban stream in the Mid-Atlantic United States. These clusters correspond to distinct hydrologic regimes and reveal specific salinization risks: (1) phosphorus pollution mobilized during summer storms (Cluster 1); (2) elevated concentrations of sulfate and bicarbonate during baseflow (Cluster 2), likely reflecting groundwater discharge; and (3) elevated specific conductance and sodium, chloride, and potassium ion concentrations during snowmelt and rain-on-snow events (Cluster 3), driven by deicer and anti-icer wash-off. These ion fingerprints offer a transferable framework for diagnosing salt sources, assessing ecological risk, and identifying management targets. Our findings underscore the need for next-generation stormwater infrastructure and smart growth policies to protect aquatic life in rapidly urbanizing watersheds.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Toward a Unified Kinetic Model of Nitrogenase Catalysis

The microbial enzyme nitrogenase catalyzes the MgATP-dependent reduction of N 2 to 2NH 3 , a transformation central to the global nitrogen cycle. While the canonical Thorneley−Lowe (TL) kinetic model has long served as a mechanistic framework, it does not incorporate several recent insights. Here, we present an updated kinetic model for Monitrogenase that incorporates these new findings. A significant insight is that electron transfer (ET) from the reduced Fe protein to the FeMo-cofactor is gated by MgATP-dependent conformational transitions and can be described as a probabilistic event that is dependent on the ligand bound to the active-site metallocofactor. The updated kinetic model quantitatively reproduces steady-state product formation rates across a broad range of experimental conditions, yielding revised estimates for key rate constants. It is demonstrated that under N 2 turnover, the probability of productive ET to the active site decreases by ∼60%, resulting in a significant fraction of Fe protein cycles that are unproductive for electron delivery. This mechanistic feature explains the observed rate limitation in N 2 reduction and implies a revised minimum energetic cost of approximately 25 MgATP per N 2 reduced. Integrating these new features into the revised kinetic model provides a more complete and usable foundation for understanding nitrogenase catalysis.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Effects of oxidation and impurities in lithium surfaces on the emitting wall plasma sheath

The use of lithium as a surface coating in fusion devices improves the plasma performance, but the change in the wall properties affects the secondary electron emission properties of the material. Lithium oxidizes easily, which drives the emission yield well above unity. We present here simulations demonstrating the change in the sheath structure from monotonic to the nonmonotonic space-charge limited sheath using an energy-dependent data-driven emission model, which self-consistently captures both secondary emission and backscattering populations. Increased secondary electron emission from the material has ramifications for the degradation and erosion of the wall. The results show that the oxidation leads to an increased electron energy flux into the wall and a reduced ion energy flux. The net transfer of energy to the surface is significantly greater for the oxidized case than for the pure lithium case. High backscattering rates of low-energy particles lead to a high re-emission rate at the wall.

Fusion reactors↗
DOE OSTI2026

Trafficking of a nitrogenase FeMo-cofactor assembly intermediate

The maturation of the unique FeMo-cofactor of molybdenum nitrogenase is a multistep process requiring the sequential action of a series of maturase complexes. As a final step, the NifEN complex forms FeMo-cofactor from the precursor NifB-co, also called L-cluster, through replacement of an apical iron ion by molybdenum and the attachment of an organic homocitrate ligand. NifB-co is delivered by a small cofactor chaperone, NifX, and initially bound near the surface of the maturase NifEN. Here, we report high-resolution cryo-electron microscopy structures of NifEN in complex with NifX, showing NifB-co binding to NifEN in full detail, capturing both interacting partners in the act of cluster transfer. In a dynamic transfer complex, the large metal cluster is coordinated by single residues from both NifEN and NifX. In silico studies concur with these structures but suggest a third, internal conversion site where cluster maturation likely takes place.

metalloproteins↗
DOE OSTI2025

A roadmap to understanding and anticipating microbial gene transfer in soil communities

Engineered microbes are being programmed using synthetic DNA for applications in soil to overcome global challenges related to climate change, energy, food security, and pollution. However, we cannot yet predict gene transfer processes in soil to assess the frequency of unintentional transfer of engineered DNA to environmental microbes when applying synthetic biology technologies at scale. This challenge exists because of the complex and heterogeneous characteristics of soils, which contribute to the fitness and transport of cells and the exchange of genetic material within communities. Here, we describe knowledge gaps about gene transfer across soil microbiomes. Here, we propose strategies to improve our understanding of gene transfer across soil communities, highlight the need to benchmark the performance of biocontainment measures in situ, and discuss responsibly engaging community stakeholders. We highlight opportunities to address knowledge gaps, such as creating a set of soil standards for studying gene transfer across diverse soil types and measuring gene transfer host range across microbiomes using emerging technologies. By comparing gene transfer rates, host range, and persistence of engineered microbes across different soils, we posit that community-scale, environment-specific models can be built that anticipate biotechnology risks. Such studies will enable the design of safer biotechnologies that allow us to realize the benefits of synthetic biology and mitigate risks associated with the release of such technologies.

bioccontainment↗
DOE OSTI2025

Electrochemical production of H 2 O 2 on palladium-based clusters driven by metal–support interaction

Utilizing palladium (Pd) clusters as active sites offers a promising route to minimize noble metal consumption in electrochemical hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) production. In this work, we present a synthesis approach for anchoring Pd-based clusters onto carbon-supported CeO 2 nanosubstrates to enable efficient H 2 O 2 generation via the two-electron oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) pathway. By systematically adjusting Pd loading, we evaluated its impact on H 2 O 2 yield and production rate. The catalyst with the lowest Pd content (0.027 wt%) exhibited outstanding performance, achieving 97% H 2 O 2 selectivity, 94.2 faradaic efficiency at 0.7 V vs. RHE, and a peak production rate of 195.8 mol g Pd −1 h −1 . A formulation containing 0.35 wt% Pd delivered a peak ORR mass activity nearly three times as high as that of commercial 10 wt% Pd/C, while retaining comparable electrochemical stability. These enhancements are attributed to synergistic effects among isolated PdO clusters, CeO 2 nanocrystals, and the conductive carbon support, which together facilitate oxygen adsorption and promote the two-electron ORR pathway. Analysis after accelerated durability testing further revealed a tendency toward cluster agglomeration and mass transfer from smaller to larger nanocrystals, indicative of a coarsening mechanism. Overall, this study underscores the promise of low-Pd PdO–CeO 2 –carbon hybrid catalysts for scalable and efficient H 2 O 2 electrosynthesis, while highlighting stability as a critical area for future improvement.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Track reconstruction as a service for collider physics

Optimizing charged-particle track reconstruction algorithms is crucial for efficient event reconstruction in Large Hadron Collider (LHC) experiments due to their significant computational demands. Existing track reconstruction algorithms have been adapted to run on massively parallel coprocessors, such as graphics processing units (GPUs), to reduce processing time. Nevertheless, challenges remain in fully harnessing the computational capacity of coprocessors in a scalable and non-disruptive manner. This paper proposes an inference-as-a-service approach for particle tracking in high energy physics experiments. To evaluate the efficacy of this approach, two distinct tracking algorithms are tested: Patatrack, a rule-based algorithm, and Exa.TrkX, a machine learning-based algorithm. The as-a-service implementations show enhanced GPU utilization and can process requests from multiple CPU cores concurrently without increasing per-request latency. The impact of data transfer is minimal and insignificant compared to running on local coprocessors. This approach greatly improves the computational efficiency of charged particle tracking, providing a solution to the computing challenges anticipated in the High-Luminosity LHC era.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2025

Proton transfer during reduction of the catalytic metallo-cofactors of the three nitrogenase isozymes

Nitrogenase catalyzes biological nitrogen fixation, the conversion of atmospheric N 2 into bioavailable ammonia. The three nitrogenase isozymes—Mo-nitrogenase, V-nitrogenase, and Fe-nitrogenase—utilize catalytic cofactors distinguished by their metal composition (Fe 7 M, M = Mo, V, or Fe; denoted FeM-co). Their catalytic cycles involve stepwise addition of 8[e−/H+] to FeM-co, generating intermediates designated E n , where n is the number of [e − /H + ] delivered. The electron-transfer has been extensively characterized, but the proton delivery has not. Here, we investigate [e − /H + ] delivery during early-stage conversions, primarily E 0 → E 1 (H), for each of the three nitrogenases, using as reductants γ-ray-generated thermolyzed, mobile electrons at 77 K, and radiation-generated solvent radicals during subsequent annealing to higher temperatures. Our results show E 0 → E 1 (H) conversion differs among the three MFe-proteins. The FeMo-co of MoFe-protein accepts an electron (ET) during 77 K γ-irradiation, but proton transfer (PT) to generate E 1 (H) is only enabled by conformational or thermodynamic activation upon cryoannealing to ∼200 K(ET/PT). For VFe-protein, E 1 (H) forms during annealing at-and-above 210 K by electron-transfer to FeV-co from radicals through proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET), which too is enabled by activated proton transfer. FeFe-protein differs in directly exhibiting delivery of protons at 77 K, which together with the mobile electrons react to form E 1 (H). This could well occur by PCET at 77 K, but does not preclude the possibility of sequential 77 K electron/proton transfer (ET/PT). In addition, 450 nm photolysis reveals the E 1 (H) state of FeV-co, like that of FeFe-co, contains a hydride bound to a formally oxidized cofactor. The mechanistic differences observed here provide a contribution towards understanding the sources of catalytic differences among the three nitrogenase isozymes.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Transfer of EP and Doping Technology for PIP-II HB650 Cavities from Fermilab to Industry

Fermilab has optimized the surface processing conditions for PIP-II high beta 650 MHz cavities. This encompasses conditions for bulk electropolishing, heat treatment, nitrogen doping, post-doping final electropolishing, and post-processing surface rinsing. The technology has been effectively transitioned to industry. This paper highlights the efforts made to fine-tune the process and to smoothly share them with the partner labs and an associated vendor.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Thermal Reservoir Networks for Modularly Expandable Thermal Microgrids

The Department of Defense (DoD) faces the substantial challenge of cost-effectively retrofitting one to two installations per month, each comprising approximately 1,000 buildings, to improve resilience, reduce energy consumption, and enhance energy supply security. Achieving these objectives requires optimal system selection and effective risk mitigation during system integration. To address this need, we introduce Platform-Based Design (PBD), a structured, hierarchical methodology adapted from other industrial sectors to the domain of energy system retrofits. We demonstrate the effectiveness of PBD through a techno-economic feasibility study comparing geothermal-coupled thermal energy networks (TENs) with conventional energy systems for heating, cooling, and powering 17 buildings at Joint Base Andrews (JBA) in Maryland. Our analysis illustrates that the PBD approach enables rigorous, data-driven, sequential decision making, resulting in a family of Pareto-optimal systems, among which the TEN emerged as the most promising solution. The selected TEN design integrates geothermal borefields, heat recovery heat pumps, photovoltaic (PV) arrays, and battery storage. Compared to the baseline system – gas heating combined with air-source chillers – the proposed TEN reduces annual imported energy by 74% and peak electricity demand by 45%, achieves a levelized cost of energy of $\$0.210$/kWh, and substantially enhances resilience. Life-cycle costs increase by approximately 6%, and initial investment costs are about 2.5 times higher than the baseline. However, if central plant infrastructure, district loops, and utility-scale PV and battery systems are privately funded and operated, the initial investment would fall below the baseline system cost. Critical to achieving these significant performance improvements were detailed nonlinear dynamic simulations coupling geothermal heat transfer, energy system operation, and realistic feedback control logic. These simulations identified essential design modifications and control strategy refinements that substantially reduced energy use, peak demand, and compressor shortcycling, thereby improving durability and reliability—issues that would have been significantly more expensive to resolve during operation. Additionally, the verification step highlighted sensitivities to key design parameters that could reduce initial investment by approximately $\$2$ million and reduce annual life-cycle costs more than $\$300,000$. We recommend adopting the PBD methodology for future feasibility studies and TEN pilot projects to gain valuable operational experience. Furthermore, we recommend that DoD invest in transferring and scaling the PBD methodology to other installations. This entails developing standardized computational frameworks and component libraries as well as training industry in conducting PBD. Such investments would enable rapid, robust, reliable, and cost-effective retrofits, supporting DoD’s ambitious energy system modernization goals.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2025

Intelligent experiments through real-time AI: Fast Data Processing and Autonomous Detector Control for sPHENIX and future EIC detectors

This R&D project, initiated by the DOE Nuclear Physics AI-Machine Learning initiative in 2022, leverages AI to address data processing challenges in high-energy nuclear experiments (RHIC, LHC, and future EIC). Our focus is on developing a demonstrator for real-time processing of high-rate data streams from sPHENIX experiment tracking detectors. The limitations of a 15 kHz maximum trigger rate imposed by the calorimeters can be negated by intelligent use of streaming technology in the tracking system. The approach efficiently identifies low momentum rare heavy flavor events in high-rate p+p collisions (3MHz), using Graph Neural Network (GNN) and High Level Synthesis for Machine Learning (hls4ml). Success at sPHENIX promises immediate benefits, minimizing resources and accelerating the heavy-flavor measurements. The approach is transferable to other fields. For the EIC, we develop a DIS-electron tagger using Artificial Intelligence - Machine Learning (AI-ML) algorithms for real-time identification, showcasing the transformative potential of AI and FPGA technologies in high-energy nuclear and particle experiments real-time data processing pipelines.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2025

Control Selection for the Neutralization Tank in the Aqueous Recovery System at the Savannah River Plutonium Processing Facility

The Aqueous Recovery System (ARS) at the Savannah River Plutonium Processing Facility (SRPPF) recovers and purifies plutonium (Pu) using aqueous chemistry techniques. The neutralization tanks in the ARS collect waste streams with various impurities and greatly reduced concentrations of Pu than are produced during aqueous processing. Criticality safety is primarily achieved in the ARS by using geometrically favorable process vessels. However, due to the geometry of neutralization tanks, each tank is administratively limited to no more than 450 g Pu, thus representing the transition from geometry to mass control. To ensure that this mass limit is not exceeded, an administrative control requires taking two samples of any solution to be sent to a neutralization tank. Normal operations are expected to result in less than 50 g Pu in a neutralization tank filled to its capacity of 250 L. Process upsets may cause an inadvertent transfer of up to 1000 g Pu to a neutralization tank, producing a system that is potentially not subcritical for all possible configurations of the tank. To ensure that a neutralization tank remains safety subcritical, passive engineered controls (e.g. changing tank geometry or adding fixed poisons), active engineered controls (e.g. interlocks), and administrative controls (e.g. soluble poisons and valve isolation) were considered and their viability evaluated. Ultimately, the team chose an administrative, dual-valve isolation strategy. This paper will thoroughly discuss the various control strategy options and why many of the options were not feasible for maintaining criticality safety.

Dressman, Phillip M. [Savannah River Nuclear Solut↗
DOE OSTI2025

Helium recovery system at IB3A

The growing demand for sustainable cryogenic operations at Fermilab has underscored the need to improve helium management, particularly at the Industrial Building 3A (IB3A) test facility. IB3A characterizes and tests superconductors, cables, and coils for projects such as the HL-LHC AUP and Mu2e, yet currently relies on 500 L Dewars whose boil-off is vented to atmosphere, wasting a critical, non-renewable resource and increasing the cost of testing. A project is therefore under way to link IB3A to an existing purification and liquefaction station in a neighboring building through a dedicated pipeline. Captured helium will be transferred, purified, reliquefied, and returned for reuse, cutting losses and operating costs. This paper details the first two project phases: "Design and Engineering" and "Procurement and Installation." The design phase finalizes pipeline specifications, establishes flow-control requirements, and resolves integration challenges with existing cryogenic infrastructure. The procurement and installation phase covers material sourcing, pipeline construction, and deployment of control and monitoring systems to assure reliable, efficient operation. Key technical hurdles-route optimization, pressure drop mitigation, and interface compatibility-are discussed alongside implemented solutions. Implementing the pipeline and upgrading IB3A will dramatically reduce helium consumption and therefore testing cost, strengthening Fermilab's capacity to support frontier science far into the future.

Porwisiak, D. [Fermilab; Wroclaw Tech. U.]↗
DOE OSTI2026

The HypA and HypB metallochaperones from Methanococcus maripaludis have unique metal-binding properties and a distinct nickel transfer mechanism

[NiFe] hydrogenases are widespread microbial metalloenzymes that catalyze the reversible conversion of hydrogen (H2) to protons and electrons, playing key roles in energy metabolism. The biosynthesis of the NiFe(CN) 2 CO cofactor involves a suite of maturation proteins, including the HypA and HypB nickel metallochaperones. Here, we define the metal-binding properties, nucleotide-dependent behavior, and functional interplay of HypA and HypB from the hydrogenotrophic methanogenic archaeon, Methanococcus maripaludis . Methanogens have multiple essential nickel-dependent enzymes, so they require efficient systems for nickel delivery that remain largely unexplored. Purified M. maripaludis HypA binds zinc or mononuclear iron at the C-terminal metal binding site, the latter of which has not been reported in other HypA proteins and may serve a unique regulatory role in methanogens. The G-protein metallochaperone HypB binds nickel at the G-domain, which stimulates GTPase activity. Size exclusion chromatography experiments reveal that HypA and HypB form complexes in the presence of nickel, and zinc-bound HypA is optimized for nickel transfer from HypB. The identity of the nucleotide bound to HypB (GDP or GTP) alters the oligomeric state of HypA-HypB complexes, supporting a GTPase-mediated nickel delivery pathway. The HypA-HypB 2 complex configuration is enriched and stable in the presence of GDP and nickel, indicating that this complex delivers nickel to the hydrogenase as opposed to HypA alone. Interestingly, affinity purification-mass spectrometry revealed that HypB interacts with several nickel-dependent proteins, suggesting that HypB may play a broader role in nickel homeostasis in M. maripaludis . Together, this work establishes a biochemical framework for HypAB-mediated nickel trafficking in methanogens.

[NiFe] hydrogenase↗
DOE OSTI2025

Benchmarking the design of the cryogenics system for the underground argon in DarkSide-20k

DarkSide-20k (DS-20k) is a dark matter detection experimentunder construction at the Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso (LNGS)in Italy. It utilises ∼ 100 t of low radioactivity argon from anunderground source (UAr) in its inner detector, with half serving astarget in a dual-phase time projection chamber (TPC). The UArcryogenics system must maintain stable thermodynamic conditionsthroughout the experiment's lifetime of over10 years. Continuous removal ofimpurities and radon from the UAr is essential for maximising signalyield and mitigating background. We are developing an efficient andpowerful cryogenics system with a gas purification loop with atarget circulation rate of1000 slpm. Central to itsdesign is a condenser operated with liquid nitrogen which is pairedwith a gas heat exchanger cascade, delivering a combined coolingpower of more than 8 kW. Here wepresent the design choices in view of the DS-20k requirements, inparticular the condenser's working principle and the coolingcontrol, and we show test results obtained with a dedicatedbenchmarking platform at CERN and LNGS. We find that the thermalefficiency of the recirculation loop, defined in terms of nitrogenconsumption per argon flow rate, is95 % and the pressure in the testcryostat can be maintained within±(0.1–0.2) mbar. Wefurther detail a 5-day cool-down procedure of the test cryostat,maintaining a cooling rate typically within-2 K/h, as required for theDS-20k inner detector. Additionally, we assess the circuit's flowresistance, and the heat transfer capabilities of two heat exchangergeometries for argon phase change, used to provide gas forrecirculation. We conclude by discussing how our findings influencethe finalisation of the system design, including necessarymodifications to meet requirements and ongoing testing activities.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2025

Dynamical Heating from Dark Compact Objects and Axion Minihalos: Implications for the 21-cm Signal

The temperature of baryons at the end of the cosmic dark ages can be inferred from observations of the 21-cm hyperfine transition in neutral hydrogen. Any energy injection from the dark sector can therefore be detected through these measurements. Dark compact objects and dark-matter substructures can modify the baryon temperature by transferring heat via dynamical friction. In this work, we evaluate the prospects for detecting dynamical friction-induced heating from dark compact objects with a mass in the range $10^2 M_{\odot}$ to $10^5 M_{\odot}$, as well as from axion minihalos, using upcoming 21-cm experiments. We find that both the 21-cm global signal and power-spectrum measurements will be sensitive to dark compact objects that constitute about 10% of the dark matter, and will substantially improve our sensitivity to axion-like particles with masses in the range $10^{-18}$ eV to $10^{-9}$ eV.

Bhalla, Badal [Oklahoma U.] (ORCID:000000030488664↗
DOE OSTI2024

Numerical analysis of coalescence-induced bubble departure for enhanced boiling heat transfer

Boiling heat transfer plays a crucial role in a wide range of applications, such as power generation, refrigeration, electronics cooling, and pharmaceutics. Among the various factors that influence boiling heat transfer, the dynamics of vapor bubble nucleation, growth, and departure from the heated surface stand out as particularly important. An emerging phenomenon that can promote the departure of bubbles smaller than the Fritz diameter is coalescence-induced departure. If the dynamics of this process are fully understood, then surfaces can be engineered to promote faster bubble departure and substantially increase the performance of boiling heat transfer. Further, this work expands on published results by presenting a detailed numerical analysis of bubble coalescence and departure for a range of initial bubble diameters and size ratios between coalescing bubbles. Analysis of the results is focused on explaining how the release of surface energy and bubble surface dynamics lead to bubble departure, as well as fundamentally distinguishing capillary–inertial jumping and buoyant–inertial departure mechanisms across different bubble sizes and size ratios. The results show that both the initial sizes of the coalescing bubbles and the ratio between their sizes can determine whether the merged bubble will leave the surface through capillary–inertial jumping or buoyant departure. Below a certain bubble size, the release of surface energy by the merger is not sufficient to propel the merged bubble from the surface.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2025

Mitigating Cyclable Li‐Ion Inventory Loss in Full Cells with Mn‐Rich Disordered Rocksalt Cathodes

Lithium (Li)- and manganese (Mn)-rich disordered rock salt (DRX) materials are promising cathode materials for next-generation Li-ion batteries. Although these cathode materials are Li-ions rich in their pristine state, their incorporation into full cells results in challenges with maintaining Li-ion inventory during cycling. Herein, the degradation mechanisms of DRX materials in different DRX||Graphite full cells are reported. It is found that DRX electrodes contain Li impurities, primarily due to the environmental sensitivity of mechanochemically synthesized DRX materials during sample transfer and storage. In addition, the structural instability of DRX triggers Mn dissolution. Dissolved Mn ions react with exposed Li x C y compounds and induce electrolyte decomposition on the anode, further depleting Li-ion inventory. Control experiments involving the pre-addition of Mn 2+ provide clear evidence of the impact of Mn dissolution on Li-ion inventory. The electrochemical activation process can stabilize DRX, alleviate Mn dissolution and thus mitigate the loss of Li-ion inventory. These mechanistic insights inform the development of chemical pre-lithiation and electrolyte additive strategies to collectively passivate interfaces, mitigate the effects of trace dissolved Mn ions, and preserve Li-ion inventory. Ultimately, the DRX||Graphite full cell achieves highly reversible electrochemical reactions with a high capacity retention. This study fills a research gap in DRX-based full cells and provides insights into degradation mechanisms and optimization strategies for their practical use.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗