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NASA NTRS1994

Mount Rainier active cascade volcano

Mount Rainier is one of about two dozen active or recently active volcanoes in the Cascade Range, an arc of volcanoes in the northwestern United States and Canada. The volcano is located about 35 kilometers southeast of the Seattle-Tacoma metropolitan area, which has a population of more than 2.5 million. This metropolitan area is the high technology industrial center of the Pacific Northwest and one of the commercial aircraft manufacturing centers of the United States. The rivers draining the volcano empty into Puget Sound, which has two major shipping ports, and into the Columbia River, a major shipping lane and home to approximately a million people in southwestern Washington and northwestern Oregon. Mount Rainier is an active volcano. It last erupted approximately 150 years ago, and numerous large floods and debris flows have been generated on its slopes during this century. More than 100,000 people live on the extensive mudflow deposits that have filled the rivers and valleys draining the volcano during the past 10,000 years. A major volcanic eruption or debris flow could kill thousands of residents and cripple the economy of the Pacific Northwest. Despite the potential for such danger, Mount Rainier has received little study. Most of the geologic work on Mount Rainier was done more than two decades ago. Fundamental topics such as the development, history, and stability of the volcano are poorly understood.

Source record↗

DOE OSTI2022

Volcano infrasound: progress and future directions

Over the past two decades (2000–2020), volcano infrasound (acoustic waves with frequencies less than 20 Hz propagating in the atmosphere) has evolved from an area of academic research to a useful monitoring tool. As a result, infrasound is routinely used by volcano observatories around the world to detect, locate, and characterize volcanic activity. It is particularly useful in confirming subaerial activity and monitoring remote eruptions, and it has shown promise in forecasting paroxysmal activity at open-vent systems. Fundamental research on volcano infrasound is providing substantial new insights on eruption dynamics and volcanic processes and will continue to do so over the next decade. The increased availability of infrasound sensors will expand observations of varied eruption styles, and the associated increase in data volume will make machine learning workflows more feasible. More sophisticated modeling will be applied to examine infrasound source and propagation effects from local to global distances, leading to improved infrasound-derived estimates of eruption properties. Future work will use infrasound to detect, locate, and characterize moving flows, such as pyroclastic density currents, lahars, rockfalls, lava flows, and avalanches. Infrasound observations will be further integrated with other data streams, such as seismic, ground- and satellite-based thermal and visual imagery, geodetic, lightning, and gas data. The volcano infrasound community should continue efforts to make data and codes accessible and to improve diversity, equity, and inclusion in the field. In summary, the next decade of volcano infrasound research will continue to advance our understanding of complex volcano processes through increased data availability, sensor technologies, enhanced modeling capabilities, and novel data analysis methods that will improve hazard detection and mitigation.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2020

Seismic tomography of compressional wave velocity and attenuation structure for Makushin Volcano, Alaska

Located in the central portion of the Alaska-Aleutian subduction zone, Makushin Volcano is among the most active volcanoes in the United States and has been classified as a very high threat by the National Volcano Early Warning System based on its eruptive history and proximity to the City of Unalaska and international air routes. In 2015, five standalone seismic stations and three mini seismic arrays of 15 stations each were deployed on Unalaska Island to supplement the Alaska Volcano Observatory permanent seismic network. This temporary array was operational for one year. Taking advantage of the increased azimuthal coverage and the array's increased earthquake detection capability, we developed body-wave Vp and Vp/Vs seismic images of the velocity structure beneath the volcano. Our results show a complex structure with the upper 4 km of the crust. The shallow high-Vp features possibly delineate remnant magma pathways or conduits. Low-Vp regions are found east of the caldera at approximately 4–8 km depth. This is in agreement with previous seismic tomographic work and InSAR-based geodetic models, which had identified this region as a possible long-term source of magma. A three-dimensional compressional wave attenuation model complemented the velocity models. In general, we observe regions of corresponding low P-wave velocity and high attenuation east of the summit caldera between 5 and 7 km depth, supporting the presence of a melt-rich zone. The absolute Vp values (5.5–6.0 km/s) in this region are consistent with the presence of a magma body with a mafic signature. Here, we suggest that a triggering mechanism that involves mafic injections into a more evolved shallow magma chamber is representative of the current magmatic system below the volcano, similarly to what petrological studies have inferred for past eruptions.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

NASA NTRS2014

Characterization of Artifacts Introduced by the Empirical Volcano-Scan Atmospheric Correction Commonly Applied to CRISM and OMEGA Near-Infrared Spectra

The empirical volcano-scan atmospheric correction is widely applied to Martian near infrared CRISM and OMEGA spectra between 1000 and 2600 nanometers to remove prominent atmospheric gas absorptions with minimal computational investment. This correction method employs division by a scaled empirically-derived atmospheric transmission spectrum that is generated from observations of the Martian surface in which different path lengths through the atmosphere were measured and transmission calculated using the Beer-Lambert Law. Identifying and characterizing both artifacts and residual atmospheric features left by the volcano-scan correction is important for robust interpretation of CRISM and OMEGA volcano scan corrected spectra. In order to identify and determine the cause of spectral artifacts introduced by the volcano-scan correction, we simulated this correction using a multiple scattering radiative transfer algorithm (DISORT). Simulated transmission spectra that are similar to actual CRISM- and OMEGA-derived transmission spectra were generated from modeled Olympus Mons base and summit spectra. Results from the simulations were used to investigate the validity of assumptions inherent in the volcano-scan correction and to identify artifacts introduced by this method of atmospheric correction. We found that the most prominent artifact, a bowl-shaped feature centered near 2000 nanometers, is caused by the inaccurate assumption that absorption coefficients of CO2 in the Martian atmosphere are independent of column density. In addition, spectral albedo and slope are modified by atmospheric aerosols. Residual atmospheric contributions that are caused by variable amounts of dust aerosols, ice aerosols, and water vapor are characterized by the analysis of CRISM volcano-scan corrected spectra from the same location acquired at different times under variable atmospheric conditions.

OMEGA Near Infrared↗

NASA NTRS1982

Tharsis volcanoes - Separation distances, relative ages, sizes, morphologies, and depths of burial

Network analysis indicates the separation distances of the Tharsis volcanoes to be 700 to 900 km; this is considered to be the thickness of the Tharsis thermal lithosphere or 'tectosphere' which has thickened with time. Although as a whole the Tharsis volcanoes exhibit a random distribution, preferential alignments emerge when the history of the region is divided into separate periods. The preferential alignments mimic those of fractures in the surrounding terrain. Photogeologic and morphometric data indicate that the volcanoes fall into four distinct classes: montes, tholi, paterae, and a class whose sole representative is Alba Patera. The volcanoes have been buried by lava up to about 4 km in thickness. The sizes of the volcanoes directly correlate with their separation distances from their nearest neighbors. It is concluded that the greater the lithosphere thickness, the larger will be the volcano and the greater its separation distance from its nearest neighbor.

Whitford-Stark, J. L.↗

NASA NTRS1985

Geologic Interpretation of Remote Sensing Data for the Martian Volcano, Ascraeus Mons

Results of an investigation to relate remotely determined physical properties on Ascraeus Mons to the geologic history of the volcano are summarized. Products include a 1:2,000,000-scale photogeologic map of Ascraeus Mons and its environs; a 1:250,000-scale corrected thermal-inertia map of the summit caldera complex; four corrected thermal-inertia profiles across the volcano from high-resolution thermal data; fourteen low-resolution thermal sequences providing corrected thermal inertias for the volcano throughout half a Martian year; and a calibrated three-color photograph of the volcano. These data were combined with published spectral-reflectance, radar, and atmospheric water-vapor data relating to Acraeus Mons. Photogeologic mapping indicates that the sequence of events at Acraeus Mons is more complex than previously described. The plains surrounding the volcano include numerous flows, some of which can be traced to the flank of the volcano and some to different locations along the Tharsis Ridge. Surface morphology in the summit area is very distinct for features 100 m in scale, but the surface relief and tonal contrast steadily decrease toward the base of the shield, indicating modification by deposition or erosion.

Zimbelman, J.↗

NASA NTRS1987

Fluvial valleys on Martian volcanoes

Channels and valleys were known on the Martian volcanoes since their discovery by the Mariner 9 mission. Their analysis has generally centered on interpretation of possible origins by fluvial, lava, or viscous flows. The possible fluvial dissection of Martian volcanoes has received scant attention in comparison to that afforded outflow, runoff, and fretted channels. Photointerpretative, mapping, and morphometric studies of three Martian volcanoes were initiated: Ceraunius Tholus, Hecate Tholus, and Alba Patera. Preliminary morphometric results indicate that, for these three volcanoes, valley junction angles increase with decreasing slope. Drainage densities are quite variable, apparently reflecting complex interactions in the landscape-forming factors described. Ages of the Martian volcanoes were recently reinterpreted. This refined dating provides a time sequence in which to evaluate the degradational forms. An anomaly has appeared from the initial study: fluvial valleys seem to be present on some Martian volcanoes, but not on others of the same age. Volcanic surfaces characterized only by high permeability lava flows may have persisted without fluvial dissection.

Baker, Victor R.↗

NASA NTRS1987

Eruptions of Pavlof Volcano and their possible modulation by ocean load and tectonic stresses

Data pertaining to the basic features (such as the volume of erupted materials and the rate of mass ejection) of the eruptions of the Pavlof Volcano, Alaska, and the accompanying seismicity were related to other geophysical data, including atmospheric pressure, earth and ocean-load tides, long-period sea level, and ground tilt. A significant correlation was found between the eruptions of the volcano and yearly nontidal variations in sea level, that possibly resulted from ocean loading; volume changes beneath the volcano due to ocean loading were calculated to be from 0.02 to 2 times eruption volumes. It is suggested that the volcano acts as a long-period volume strain meter, with lava being preferentially erupted when strain beneath the volcano is compressive. No eruptions occurred during the period of 1978-1980, when tilt, seismic data, and sea level data indicated that a deep aseismic slip may have occurred. Models of this aseismic event predict a volume increase beneath the volcano that might have compensated strain from magma injection.

Mcnutt, S. R.↗

NASA NTRS1993

State of stress, faulting, and eruption characteristics of large volcanoes on Mars

The formation of a large volcano loads the underlying lithospheric plate and can lead to lithospheric flexure and faulting. In turn, lithospheric stresses affect the stress field beneath and within the volcanic edifice and can influence magma transport. Modeling the interaction of these processes is crucial to an understanding of the history of eruption characteristics and tectonic deformation of large volcanoes. We develop models of time-dependent stress and deformation of the Tharsis volcanoes on Mars. A finite element code is used that simulates viscoelastic flow in the mantle and elastic plate flexural behavior. We calculate stresses and displacements due to a volcano-shaped load emplaced on an elastic plate. Models variously incorporate growth of the volcanic load with time and a detachment between volcano and lithosphere. The models illustrate the manner in which time-dependent stresses induced by lithospheric plate flexure beneath the volcanic load may affect eruption histories, and the derived stress fields can be related to tectonic features on and surrounding martian volcanoes.

Mcgovern, Patrick J.↗

NASA NTRS1994

Height and altitude distribution of large volcanoes on Venus

Magellan data reveal 156 large volcanoes on Venus (greater than 100 km in diameter) which range in height from 300 m to 5.55 km, with an average height of 1.42 km. On the basis of theory it has been predicted that the development of neutral buoyancy zones (NBZ) on Venus and thus the resulting volcanic deposits are strongly influenced by the altitude-controlled variations in surface pressure. The distribution and height of these large volcanoes as a function of altitude was examined to begin to test these predications. Although large volcanoes are relatively uniformly distributed in altitude, there may be a slight paucity of volcanoes at the lowest elevations and a slight surplus at mid-altitudes. In addition, it is observed that the volcanoes at the highest altitudes tend to be the tallest. The observed distributions at low-mid altitudes is consistent with the prediction of NBZ theory. The high altitude distribution and heights, however, emphasize the necessity of considering other factors, such as tectonic setting, edifice age, magma supply, and thermal gradient, in describing the location and development of large volcanoes on Venus.

Keddie, S. T.↗

NASA NTRS2005

Evolution of large shield volcanoes on Venus

We studied the geologic history, topographic expression, and gravity signature of 29 large Venusian shield volcanoes with similar morphologies in Magellan synthetic aperture radar imagery. While they appear similar in imagery, 16 have a domical topographic expression and 13 have a central depression. Typical dimensions for the central depression are 150 km wide and 500 m deep. The central depressions are probably not calderas resulting from collapse of a shallow magma chamber but instead are the result of a corona-like sagging of a previously domical volcano. The depressions all have some later volcanic filling. All but one of the central depression volcanoes have been post-dated by geologic features unrelated to the volcano, while most of the domical volcanoes are at the top of the stratigraphic column. Analysis of the gravity signatures in the spatial and spectral domains shows a strong correlation between the absence of post-dating features and the presence of dynamic support by an underlying plume. We infer that the formation of the central depressions occurred as a result of cessation of dynamic support. However, there are some domical volcanoes whose geologic histories and gravity signatures also indicate that they are extinct, so sagging of the central region apparently does not always occur when dynamic support is removed. We suggest that the thickness of the elastic lithosphere may be a factor in determining whether a central depression forms when dynamic support is removed, but the gravity data are of insufficient resolution to test this hypothesis with admittance methods.

Herrick, Robert R.↗

DOE OSTI2023

The Thermal Plumbing System of Stromboli Volcano, Aeolian Islands (Italy) Inferred From Electrical Conductivity and Induced Polarization Tomography

Abstract We performed the first 3D island‐scale tomography of the electrical conductivity of Stromboli volcano (Aeolian Islands, Italy) using 2D acquisition lines (37.2 km) and a total of 18,880 measurements and 2,402 unique electrode locations. This 3D data set was inverted using a Gauss‐Newton algorithm, parallel‐processing on an unstructured tetrahedral mesh containing 678,420 finite‐element nodes and 3,580,145 elements to account for the topography of the volcanic island. The tomogram exhibits a conductive body (10 −2 –1.0 S m −1 ) consistent with the location of CO 2 and temperature anomalies observed at the ground surface. It corresponds to the hydrothermal system with high electrical conductivity associated with alteration. In order to confirm this interpretation, a 2.5D large‐scale induced polarization tomography was performed crossing the volcano. The joint interpretation of the conductivity and normalized chargeability is done with a petrophysical model previously tested and verified at both shield‐ and strato‐volcanoes. This model implies that alteration (through the effect of the cation exchange capacity associated with clay minerals and zeolites) plays a strong role in both controlling the electrical conductivity and normalized chargeability at Stromboli volcano. A temperature tomogram, derived from the geoelectrical measurements, is consistent with surface temperature anomalies and the Very Long Period (VLP) seismicity related to the mild‐explosive activity. This survey displays at 600 m a.s.l. a lateral shift in the highest temperature location, also corresponding to the source of VLP seismicity. Structural boundaries have a major role in the hottest hydrothermal fluids rising below the active crater terrace of Stromboli volcano.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

NASA NTRS1973

Establishment, test and evaluation of a prototype volcano surveillance system

A volcano-surveillance system utilizing 23 multilevel earthquake counters and 6 biaxial borehole tiltmeters is being installed and tested on 15 volcanoes in 4 States and 4 foreign countries. The purpose of this system is to give early warning when apparently dormant volcanoes are becoming active. The data are relayed through the ERTS-Data Collection System to Menlo Park for analysis. Installation was completed in 1972 on the volcanoes St. Augustine and Iliamna in Alaska, Kilauea in Hawaii, Baker, Rainier and St. Helens in Washington, Lassen in California, and at a site near Reykjavik, Iceland. Installation continues and should be completed in April 1973 on the volcanoes Santiaguito, Fuego, Agua and Pacaya in Guatemala, Izalco in El Salvador and San Cristobal, Telica and Cerro Negro in Nicaragua.

Ward, P. L.↗

NASA NTRS1979

The chronology of the martian volcanoes

The volcanoes of Mars have been divided into three groups based on morphology: basaltic shields, domes and composite cones, and highland patera. A fourth group can be added to include the volcano-tectonic depressions. Using crater counts and the absolute chronology of Soderblom, an attempt is made to estimate the history of the volcanoes. Early in the martian history, about 2.5 b.y. ago, all three styles of volcanoes were active at various locations on the surface. At approximately 1.7-1.8 b.y. ago a transition occurred in the style and loci of volcanic construction. Volcanoes of younger age appear to be only of the basaltic shield group and are restricted to the Tharsis region. This same transition was noted by a change in the style of the basaltic shield group. Older shields were small low features, while the younger shields are significantly broader and taller.

Plescia, J. B.↗

NASA NTRS1982

A porous flow model for the geometrical form of volcanoes - Critical comments

A critical evaluation is presented of the assumptions on which the mathematical model for the geometrical form of a volcano arising from the flow of magma in a porous medium of Lacey et al. (1981) is based. The lack of evidence for an equipotential surface or its equivalent in volcanoes prior to eruption is pointed out, and the preference of volcanic eruptions for low ground is attributed to the local stress field produced by topographic loading rather than a rising magma table. Other difficulties with the model involve the neglect of the surface flow of lava under gravity away from the vent, and the use of the Dupuit approximation for unconfined flow and the assumption of essentially horizontal magma flow. Comparisons of model predictions with the shapes of actual volcanoes reveal the model not to fit lava shield volcanoes, for which the cone represents the solidification of small lava flows, and to provide a poor fit to composite central volcanoes.

Wadge, G.↗

NASA NTRS1982

Volcanoes and volcanic provinces - Martian western hemisphere

The recognition of some Martian landforms as volcanoes is based on their morphology and geologic setting. Other structures, however, may exhibit classic identifying features to a varying or a less degree; these may be only considered provisionally as having a volcanic origin. Regional geologic mapping of the western hemisphere of Mars from Viking images has revealed many more probable volcanoes and volcanotectonic features than were recognized on Mariner 9 pictures. These abundant volcanoes have been assigned to several distinct provinces on the basis of their areal distribution. Although the Olympus-Tharsis region remains as the principle center of volcanism on Mars, four other important provinces are now also recognized: the lowland plains, Tempe Terra plateau, southern highlands (in the Phaethontis and Thaumasia quadrangles), and a probable ignimbrite province, situated along the highland-lowland boundary in Amazonis Planitia. Volcanoes in any one province vary in morphlogy, size, and age, but volcanoes in each province tend to have common characteristics that distinguish that particular group.

Scott, D. H.↗

NASA NTRS1988

Iridium emissions from Hawaiian volcanoes

Particle and gas samples were collected at Mauna Loa volcano during and after its eruption in March and April, 1984 and at Kilauea volcano in 1983, 1984, and 1985 during various phases of its ongoing activity. In the last two Kilauea sampling missions, samples were collected during eruptive activity. The samples were collected using a filterpack system consisting of a Teflon particle filter followed by a series of 4 base-treated Whatman filters. The samples were analyzed by INAA for over 40 elements. As previously reported in the literature, Ir was first detected on particle filters at the Mauna Loa Observatory and later from non-erupting high temperature vents at Kilauea. Since that time Ir was found in samples collected at Kilauea and Mauna Loa during fountaining activity as well as after eruptive activity. Enrichment factors for Ir in the volcanic fumes range from 10,000 to 100,000 relative to BHVO. Charcoal impregnated filters following a particle filter were collected to see if a significant amount of the Ir was in the gas phase during sample collection. Iridium was found on charcoal filters collected close to the vent, no Ir was found on the charcoal filters. This indicates that all of the Ir is in particulate form very soon after its release. Ratios of Ir to F and Cl were calculated for the samples from Mauna Loa and Kilauea collected during fountaining activity. The implications for the KT Ir anomaly are still unclear though as Ir was not found at volcanoes other than those at Hawaii. Further investigations are needed at other volcanoes to ascertain if basaltic volcanoes other than hot spots have Ir enrichments in their fumes.

Finnegan, D. L.↗

NASA NTRS1989

Application of the Landsat Thematic Mapper to the identification of potentially active volcanoes in the Central Andes

A systematic study of the potentially active volcanoes in the Central Andes (14 deg S to 28 deg S) was carried out on the basis of Landsat Thematic Mapper images which provided consistent coverage of the area. More than 60 major volcanoes were identified as potentially active, as compared to 16 that are listed in the Catalog of Active Volcanoes of the World (Casertano, 1963; Hantke and Parodi, 1966). Most of these volcanoes are large (up to 6000 m in height) composite cones. Some of them could threaten nearby settlements, especially those in southern Peru, where the volcanoes rise above deep canyons with settlements along them.

Francis, P. W.↗