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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 361 records · Page 20
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2021

Phenylpropanoid Biosynthesis Gene Expression Precedes Lignin Accumulation During Shoot Development in Lowland and Upland Switchgrass Genotypes

Efficient conversion of lignocellulosic biomass into biofuels is influenced by biomass composition and structure. Lignin and other cell wall phenylpropanoids, such as para -coumaric acid ( p CA) and ferulic acid (FA), reduce cell wall sugar accessibility and hamper biochemical fuel production. Toward identifying the timing and key parameters of cell wall recalcitrance across different switchgrass genotypes, this study measured cell wall composition and lignin biosynthesis gene expression in three switchgrass genotypes, A4 and AP13, representing the lowland ecotype, and VS16, representing the upland ecotype, at three developmental stages [Vegetative 3 (V3), Elongation 4 (E4), and Reproductive 3 (R3)] and three segments (S1–S3) of the E4 stage under greenhouse conditions. A decrease in cell wall digestibility and an increase in phenylpropanoids occur across development. Compared with AP13 and A4, VS16 has significantly less lignin and greater cell wall digestibility at the V3 and E4 stages; however, differences among genotypes diminish by the R3 stage. Gini correlation analysis across all genotypes revealed that lignin and p CA, but also pectin monosaccharide components, show the greatest negative correlations with digestibility. Lignin and p CA accumulation is delayed compared with expression of phenylpropanoid biosynthesis genes, while FA accumulation coincides with expression of these genes. The different cell wall component accumulation profiles and gene expression correlations may have implications for system biology approaches to identify additional gene products with cell wall component synthesis and regulation functions.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Editorial: Phenylpropanoid Systems Biology and Biotechnology

Phenylpropanoids are specialized metabolites involved in several aspects of plant growth and development and in the responses of plants to environmental stimuli. These compounds are synthesized from key intermediates of the shikimate pathway, which are structurally modified by the combined activities of lyases, transferases, ligases, reductases and oxygenases, resulting in the organ- and developmental-specific synthesis and accumulation of diverse metabolites (Vogt, 2010). The phenylpropanoid pathway provides the building blocks for lignin, suberin, and condensed tannins that play a role in structural support and mechanical strength. Lignin is a major contributor to feedstock recalcitrance and negatively affects the conversion of plant biomass into downstream products in biorefineries (Liu et al., 2021). Further, this pathway is key for the production of anthocyanins for organ pigmentation, flavonols and flavones for UV protection, various flavonoids and isoflavonoids for plant-microbe interactions, and antimicrobial phytoalexins for protection against pathogens (Deng and Lu, 2017). In addition to their biological functions in planta, phenylpropanoids are economically important metabolites. They constitute important components in the human diet, acting as nutraceutical compounds with antioxidant, chemopreventive, antimitotic, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, and anti-inflammatory activities. Several phenylpropanoids are considered high-value biochemicals employed in the production of fragrances, pharmaceuticals and biopolymers (Lin and Eudes, 2020).

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS1984

Problems associated with the utilization of algae in bioregenerative life support systems

A workshop was conducted to identify the potential problems associated with the use of microalgae in biorregenerative life support systems, and to identify algae rlated research issues that must be addressed through space flight experimentation. Major questions to be resolved relate to the choice of algal species for inclusion in a bioregenerative life support system, their long term behavior in the space environment, and the nature of the techniques required for the continuous growth of algae on the scale required. Consideration was given to the problems associated with the conversion of algal biomass into edible components. Specific concerns were addressed and alternative transformation processes identified and compared. The workshop identified the following major areas to be addressed by space flight experimentation: (1) long term culture stability, (2) optimal design of algal growth reactors, and (3) post growth harvesting and processing in the space environment.

Averner, M. M.↗
NASA NTRS1996

Anaerobic degradation of inedible crop residues produced in a Controlled Ecological Life Support System

An anaerobic reactor seeded with organisms from an anaerobic lagoon was used to study the degradation of inedible crop residues from potato and wheat crops grown in a closed environment. Conversion of this biomass into other products was also evaluated. Degradation of wheat volatile solids was about 25% where that of potato was about 50%. The main product of the anaerobic fermentation of both crops was acetic acid with smaller quantities of propionate and butyrate produced. Nitrate, known to be high in concentration in inedible potato and wheat biomass grown hydroponically, was converted to ammonia in the anaerobic reactor. Both volatile fatty acid and ammonia production may have implications in a crop production system.

NASA Program Advanced Life Support↗
DOE OSTI2020

Separation of High Purity Oxygenated Aromatics from Catalytic Fast Pyrolysis Organic Streams

Thermochemical conversion of lignocellulosic biomass offers an attractive route to produce fuels and chemicals. Specifically, catalytic fast pyrolysis (CFP) oils have been shown to contain a high concentration of oxygenated aromatics, which can be isolated as value-added co-products. Purification of oxygenated aromatics can be a viable pathway to more economically competitive biorefineries, yet the isolation of highly pure coproduct streams remains technically challenging due to the high chemical heterogeneity of thermochemical process steams. Here, we demonstrate an industrially scalable process for isolating phenol, a widely used precursor to plastics, from CFP oil. Importantly, we leverage standard industrial processes, such as distillation, liquid-liquid extraction, and crystallization, to achieve phenol with 97% purity. In addition, the primary distillation of the CFP oil yielded several other fractions that contain chemicals with the potential to be isolated (e.g. cyclic ketones, cresols, and guaiacols). This work provides a technically feasible path to high purity oxygenated aromatics that has the potential to offset fuel production costs in a biorefinery.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Identification of Critical Material Attributes in Lignin Streams Based on Pseudomonas putida Performance

Variability in chemical composition of corn stover feedstocks has been suggested to play a role in biocatalyst performance during the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to value-added compounds. In previous studies, we investigated the performance of Pseudomonas putida CJ781 - an engineered bacterium that converts aromatic compounds to muconate - on various lignin streams produced from the deacetylation of corn stover, and we found significant differences on muconate production. To better understand the origin of these differences, we down selected twenty-two compounds from literature - that had previously been detected as extractives in lignin streams - and we analyzed their concentrations in 12 lignin streams generated from different feedstocks. P. putida CJ781 was then cultivated in mock lignin streams supplemented with various concentrations of these compounds. Bacterial growth was tracked in microtiter plates and the performance was measured by comparing maximum growth rates among conditions. At maximum concentrations that may be found in lignin streams, sodium was the material attribute that limited growth rate in a greater extent, with a reduction in growth rate by 8 to 37%, depending on the counter ion, with sodium nitrate being the most inhibitory, followed by sodium acetate, sodium chloride, and sodium sulfate. Ammonium acetate was also found to be inhibitory at average concentrations of ammonium in lignin streams, reducing maximum growth rate by 18%. Overall, the data from this study has allowed to down select critical material attributes in lignin streams and process parameters that significantly affect the performance of P. putida and will be used as input to predictive models that aim to reduce risks attributed to feedstock variability in lignocellulosic biorefineries.

biocatalyst↗
DOE OSTI2024

Techno-economic and life-cycle analysis of strategies for improving operability and biomass quality in catalytic fast pyrolysis of forest residues

Many of the challenges faced by the first commercial biorefineries were associated with feedstock handling, quality, and cost. Strategies are needed to enable further expansion of biorefineries and meet the growing demand for bio-based fuels and products. Here, we examine 2 key feedstock challenges and mitigation strategies in the context of a catalytic fast pyrolysis (CFP) biorefinery: (1) the operability of the feed system, which may be improved by modifying the minimum particle size fed to the reactor, and (2) the quality of the biomass, which may be improved by employing air classification to remove undesirable material and increase fuel yields. We conduct techno-economic analysis (TEA) and life-cycle analysis for these strategies, employing a discrete event simulation model for biomass preprocessing combined with a series of correlations developed from literature data and a rigorous CFP conversion model. Our results highlight the importance of balancing increased cost and material losses from preprocessing against improved operability and fuel yields. Economics and sustainability were optimized when operating at the lowest minimum particle size, emphasizing the importance of minimizing material losses while maintaining the operability of the process. Economically, additional costs and material losses from air classification could be acceptable due to improved biomass conversion, and an optimum air classification speed was identified; however, the fuel GHG emissions were minimized when air classification was not used. Valorizing material removed during preprocessing as a coproduct could improve economics and sustainability, decreasing the burden of material losses.

09 - BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Pretreatment of Biomass by Selected Type-III Deep Eutectic Solvents and Evaluation of the Pretreatment Effects on Hydrothermal Carbonization

Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) is a novel thermochemical conversion that converts wet biomass into energy dense solid fuel. Residual moisture under subcritical conditions reacts with a lignin-cellulose-hemicellulose matrix with the major reactions being identified as dehydration and decarboxylation. Among other reaction parameters (e.g., temperature, time, pressure), biomass morphology often plays a key role in HTC. The hypothesis of this study was enhancing the porous structure of biomass without significantly affecting biopolymer composition would augment hydrothermal carbonization (HTC). To prove the hypothesis, two type-III deep eutectic solvents (DESs), namely choline chloride:urea (ChCl:Urea, 1:2 mol/mol) and methyltriphenylphosphonium bromide:ethylene glycol (MTPB:EG, 1:4 mol/mol), were studied to pretreat loblolly pine at room temperature and ambient pressure for 1 h. DES pretreatment shows swelling of the biomass, increasing the surface fiber-to-fiber gap length by 52% and 185% for ChCl:Urea and MPTB:EG pretreatments, respectively. The total pore volume remained intact (2.6 × 10 –3 cm 3 /g), although new small pores evolved, and existing pores were abated with DES pretreatment. Hydrochars prepared from DES pretreated loblolly pine showed a high O/C and H/C ratio resulting in a significant increase of energy content (up to 42%) and a decrease of mass yield (up to 50 wt %), indicating an enhancement of HTC severity due to the alteration of surface morphology by DES. Finally, a preliminary process economics revealed that integrated DES pretreatment-HTC would increase fixed capital investment but decrease the cost of operation and manufacturing than the standalone HTC process.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Production of carotenoids from aromatics and pretreated lignocellulosic biomass by Novosphingobium aromaticivorans

ABSTRACT Carotenoids are lipophilic compounds found in the membranes of various organisms. Individual carotenoids are also commodity chemicals, produced industrially for use as food additives, nutritional supplements, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. The alphaproteobacterium Novosphingobium aromaticivorans has previously been established as a potential platform microbe for converting aromatic compounds derived from lignocellulosic plant biomass into valuable extracellular products. Here, we show that N. aromaticivorans DSM 12444 cells naturally produce the carotenoid nostoxanthin, and we construct a set of gene deletion mutants that accumulate β-carotene, lycopene, or zeaxanthin, which are predicted intermediates in nostoxanthin biosynthesis as well as commodity chemicals. We also show that a mutant strain heterologously expressing a CrtW protein accumulates the carotenoid astaxanthin. When grown on vanillate as the carbon source, we find that the levels of carotenoids are not significantly affected by O 2 concentration in the tested range of 5% to 21% O 2 . We also show that these carotenoids are produced at comparable levels when strains are grown in liquor from alkaline pretreated sorghum biomass [sorghum alkaline pretreatment liquor (APL)], which contains a mixture of aromatics. Finally, we construct strains that produce zeaxanthin, β-carotene, or astaxanthin concurrently with 2-pyrone-4,6-dicarboxylic acid, a potential building block for biodegradable polymers, when grown in sorghum APL. Combined, our results show that N. aromaticivorans can simultaneously produce valuable intracellular and extracellular commodities when grown in the presence of either pure aromatics or pretreated lignocellulosic biomass. IMPORTANCE There is economic and environmental interest in generating commodity chemicals from renewable resources, such as lignocellulosic biomass, that can substitute for chemicals derived from fossil fuels. The bacterium Novosphingobium aromaticivorans is a promising microbial platform for producing commodity chemicals from lignocellulosic biomass because it can produce these from compounds in pretreated lignocellulosic biomass, which many industrial microbial catalysts cannot metabolize. Here, we show that N. aromaticivorans can be engineered to produce several valuable carotenoids. We also show that engineered N. aromaticivorans strains can produce these lipophilic chemicals concurrently with the extracellular commodity chemical 2-pyrone-4,6-dicarboxylic acid when grown in a complex liquor obtained from alkaline pretreated lignocellulosic biomass. Concurrent microbial production of valuable intra- and extracellular products can increase the economic value generated from the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass-derived compounds into commodity chemicals and facilitate the separation of water- and membrane-soluble products.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Bioenergy Technologies in Long-Run Climate Change Mitigation: Results from the EMF-33 Study

Bioenergy is expected to play an important role in long-run climate change mitigation strategies as highlighted by many integrated assessment model (IAM) scenarios. These scenarios, however, also show a very wide range of results, with uncertainty about bioenergy conversion technology deployment and biomass feedstock supply. To date, the underlying differences in model assumptions and parameters for the range of results have not been conveyed. Here we explore the models and results of the 33rd study of the Stanford Energy Modeling Forum to elucidate and explore bioenergy technology specifications and constraints that underlie projected bioenergy outcomes. We first develop and report consistent bioenergy technology characterizations and modeling details. We evaluate the bioenergy technology specifications through a series of analyses—comparison with the literature, model intercomparison, and an assessment of bioenergy technology projected deployments. We find that bioenergy technology coverage and characterization varies substantially across models, spanning different conversion routes, carbon capture and storage opportunities, and technology deployment constraints. Still, the range of technology specification assumptions is largely in line with bottom-up engineering estimates. We then find that variation in bioenergy deployment across models cannot be understood from technology costs alone. Important additional determinants include biomass feedstock costs, the availability and costs of alternative mitigation options in and across end-uses, the availability of carbon dioxide removal possibilities, the speed with which large scale changes in the makeup of energy conversion facilities and integration can take place, and the relative demand for different energy services.

bioenergy↗
DOE OSTI2021

Exploring Proteomes of Robust Yarrowia lipolytica Isolates Cultivated in Biomass Hydrolysate Reveals Key Processes Impacting Mixed Sugar Utilization, Lipid Accumulation, and Degradation

Yarrowia lipolytica is an important industrial oleaginous yeast due to its robust phenotypes for effective conversion of inhibitory lignocellulosic biomass hydrolysates into neutral lipids. While lipid accumulation has been well characterized in this organism, its interconnected lipid degradation phenotype is poorly understood during fermentation of biomass hydrolysates.

proteomic analysis↗
DOE OSTI2024

Supercharged cellulases show superior thermal stability and enhanced activity towards pretreated biomass and cellulose

Non-productive binding of cellulolytic enzymes to various plant cell wall components, such as lignin and cellulose, necessitates high enzyme loadings to achieve efficient conversion of pretreated lignocellulosic biomass to fermentable sugars. Protein supercharging was previously employed as one of the strategies to reduce non-productive binding to biomass. However, various questions remain unanswered regarding the hydrolysis kinetics of supercharged enzymes towards pretreated biomass substrates and the role played by enzyme interactions with individual cell wall polymers such as cellulose and xylan. In this study, CBM2a (from Thermobifida fusca ) fused with endocellulase Cel5A (from T. fusca ) was used as the model wild-type enzyme and CBM2a was supercharged using Rosetta, to obtain eight variants with net charges spanning -14 to +6. These enzymes were recombinantly expressed in E. coli , purified from cell lysates, and their hydrolytic activities were tested against pretreated biomass substrates (AFEX and EA treated corn stover). Although the wild-type enzyme showed greater activity compared to both negatively and positively supercharged enzymes towards pretreated biomass, thermal denaturation assays identified two negatively supercharged constructs that perform better than the wild-type enzyme (~3 to 4-fold difference in activity) upon thermal deactivation at higher temperatures. To better understand the causal factor of reduced supercharged enzyme activity towards AFEX corn stover, we performed hydrolysis assays on cellulose-I/xylan/pNPC, lignin inhibition assays, and thermal stability assays. Altogether, these assays showed that the negatively supercharged mutants were highly impacted by reduced activity towards xylan whereas the positively supercharged mutants showed dramatically reduced activity towards cellulose and xylan. It was identified that a combination of impaired cellulose binding and lower thermal stability was the cause of reduced hydrolytic activity of positively supercharged enzyme sub-group. Overall, this study demonstrated a systematic approach to investigate the behavior of supercharged enzymes and identified supercharged enzyme constructs that show superior activity at elevated temperatures. Future work will address the impact of parameters such as pH, salt concentration, and assay temperature on the hydrolytic activity and thermal stability of supercharged enzymes.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Impacts of Biomass Feedstock Pre-Processing on Heat and Mass Transfer During Pyrolysis Using X-Ray Computed Tomography and Multiscale Modeling

Knowledge of the transport properties of biomass particles such as porosity, tortuosity, and permeability is paramount for high-fidelity modeling of biomass pyrolysis due to the heat and mass transfer limitations imposed by particle microstructure. X-ray computed tomography (XCT) is a non-destructive imaging method that enables full 3D reconstructions of the biomass particle microstructure with high resolution, permitting direct calculation of porosity, tortuosity, and permeability from real particle geometries. In this study, XCT imaging revealed the 3D microstructures of particles and chars from pyrolytic conversion of cylindrically cut or milled/pelletized loblolly pine samples. The porosity, tortuosity, and permeability were calculated directly from the XCT geometries via open-source microstructural analysis tool MATBOX+TauFactor (https://github.com/NREL/MATBOX_Microstructure_analysis_toolbox) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations using our solver, Mesoflow (https://github.com/NREL/mesoflow). These properties were used in a reactor scale model developed in COMSOL of the single particle reactor at NREL to investigate the impact of feedstock pre-processing on biomass conversion during pyrolysis with rigorous experimental validation.

biomass↗
DOE OSTI2020

Chemical and Structural Changes in Corn Stover After Ensiling: Influence on Bioconversion

Production of biofuels, bioproducts, and bioenergy requires a well-characterized, stable, and reasonably uniform biomass supply and well-established supply chains for shipping biomass from farm fields to biorefineries, while achieving year-round production targets. Preserving and stabilizing biomass feedstock during storage is a necessity for cost-effective and sustainable biofuel production. Ensiling is a common storage method used to preserve and even improve forage quality; however, the impact of ensiling on biomass physical and chemical properties that influence bioconversion processes has been variable. Our objective in this work was to determine the effects of ensiling on lignocellulosic feedstock physicochemical properties and how that influences bioconversion requirements. We observed statistically significant decreases (p < 0.05) in the content of two major structural carbohydrates (glucan and xylan) of 5 and 8%, respectively, between the ensiled and non-ensiled materials. We were unable to detect differences in sugar yields from structural carbohydrates after pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis of the ensiled materials compared to non-ensiled controls. Based on this work, we conclude that ensiling the corn stover did not change the bioconversion requirements compared to the control samples and incurred losses of structural carbohydrates. At the light microscopy level, ensiled corn stover exhibited little structural change or relocation of cell wall components as detected by immunocytochemistry. However, more subtle structural changes were revealed by electron microscopy, as ensiled cell walls exhibit ultrastructural characteristics such as wall delimitation intermediate between non-ensiled and dilute-acid-pretreated cell walls. These findings suggest that alternative methods of conversion, such as deacetylation and mechanical refining, could take advantage of lamellar defects and may be more effective than dilute acid or hot water pretreatment for biomass conversion of ensiled materials.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Long-term variability of root production in bioenergy crops from ingrowth core measurements

Long-term determination of root biomass production upon land-use conversion to biofuel crops is rare. To assess land-use legacy influences on belowground biomass accumulation, we converted 22-year-old Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) grasslands and 50+-year-old agricultural (AGR) lands to corn (C), switchgrass (Sw) and restored prairie (Pr) biofuel crops. We maintained one CRP grassland as a reference (Ref). We hypothesized that land-use history and crop type have significant effects on root density, with perennial crops on CRP grasslands having a higher root biomass productivity, while corn grown on former agricultural lands produce the lowest root biomass. Methods The ingrowth core method was used to determine in situ ingrowth root biomass, alongside measurements of aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP). Ancillary measurements, including air temperature, growing season length and precipitation were used to examine their influences on root biomass production. Important Findings Root biomass productivity was the highest in unconverted CRP grassland (1716 g m-2 yr-1) and lowest in corn fields (526 g m-2 yr-1). All perennial sites converted from CRP and AGR lands had lower root biomass and ANPP in the first year of planting but peaked in 2011 for switchgrass and a year later for restored prairies. Ecosystem stability was higher in restored prairies (AGR-Pr: 4.3 ± 0.11; CRP-Pr: 4.1 ± 0.10), with all monocultures exhibiting a lower stability. Root biomass production was positively related to ANPP (R2 = 0.40). Overall, attention should be given to root biomass accumulation in large-scale biofuel production as it is a major source of carbon sequestration.

Environmental Sciences & Ecology↗
DOE OSTI2020

Data from: No‐till establishment improves the climate benefit of bioenergy crops on marginal grasslands

Expanding biofuel production is expected to accelerate the conversion of unmanaged marginal lands to meet biomass feedstock needs. Greenhouse gas production during conversion jeopardizes ensuing climate benefits, but most research to date has focused only on conversion to annual crops and only following tillage. Here we report the global warming impact of converting USDA Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) grasslands to three types of bioenergy crops using no-till (NT) versus conventional tillage (CT). In three CRP fields planted to continuous corn, switchgrass, or restored prairie we established replicated NT and CT plots. For the two years following an initial soybean year in all fields, we found that, on average, NT conversion reduced nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions by 50% and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by 20% compared to CT conversion. Differences were higher in year 1 than in year 2 in the continuous corn field, and in the two perennial systems the differences disappeared after year 1. In all fields net CO2 emissions (as measured by eddy covariance) were positive for the first two years following CT establishment, but following NT establishment net CO2 emissions were close to zero or negative, indicating net C sequestration. Overall, NT improved the global warming impact of biofuel crop establishment following CRP conversion by over 20-fold compared to CT (-6.01 Mg CO2e ha-1 yr-1 for NT vs. -0.25 Mg CO2e ha-1 yr-1 for CT, on average). We also found that IPCC estimates of N2O emissions (as measured by static chambers) greatly underestimated actual emissions for converted fields regardless of tillage. Policies should encourage adoption of NT for converting marginal grasslands to perennial bioenergy crops in order to reduce carbon debt and maximize climate benefits.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Supply Chain Sustainability Analysis of Renewable Hydrocarbon Fuels via Hydrothermal Liquefaction, Combined Algal Processing, and Biochemical Conversion: Update of the 2022 State-of-Technology Cases

The Department of Energy's (DOE) Bioenergy Technologies Office (BETO) aims to develop and deploy technologies to transform renewable biomass resources into commercially viable, high-performance biofuels, bioproducts, and biopower through public and private partnerships. BETO and its national laboratory teams conduct in-depth techno-economic assessments (TEA) of biomass feedstock supply and logistics and conversion technologies to produce biofuels. There are two general types of TEAs: A design case outlines a target case (future projection) for a particular biofuel pathway. It informs R&D priorities by identifying areas in need of improvement, tracks sustainability impact of R&D, and provides goals and benchmarks against which technology progress is assessed. A state of technology (SOT) analysis assesses progress within and across relevant technology areas based on actual results at current experimental scales relative to technical targets and cost goals from design cases, and includes technical, economic, and environmental criteria as available. In addition to developing a TEA for a pathway of interest, BETO also performs a supply chain sustainability analysis (SCSA). The SCSA takes the life-cycle analysis approach that BETO has been supporting for over 20 years. It enables BETO to identify energy consumption, environmental, and sustainability issues that may be associated with biofuel production. Approaches to mitigating these issues can then be developed. Additionally, the SCSA allows for comparison of energy and environmental impacts across biofuel pathways in BETO's research and development portfolio. This technical report describes the SCSAs for the production of renewable hydrocarbon transportation fuels via a range of conversion technologies in the 2022 SOTs: (1) renewable hydrocarbon fuels via hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) of wet sludge from a wastewater treatment plant; (2) renewable hydrocarbon fuels via biochemical conversion of herbaceous lignocellulosic biomass; (3) renewable hydrocarbon fuels via HTL of an algae/woody biomass blend; and (4) renewable hydrocarbon fuels via combined algae processing (CAP).

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗