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Near-infrared noise in intense electron beams

Requirements for the noise in electron beams (NEB) have recently approached the Shot-noise level in some new applications. The density fluctuations of intense beams in the near-infrared (NIR) region are being measured at the Fermilab Accelerator Science and Technology (FAST) facility. The main goal of the experiment is to accurately compare the Shot-noise model with the observations of optical transition radiation (OTR) generated by the gamma=63 electron beam transiting an Al metal surface. In addition, evidence for longitudinal-space-charge-induced microbunching for the chicane-compressed beam was obtained with coherent enhancements up to 100 in the various bandwidth-filtered NIR OTR photodiode signals. With micropulse charges up to 1 nC, the beam parameters are close to those proposed for a stage in an Electron-Ion Collider (EIC) with coherent electron cooling (CEC). In this paper we present the current progress of the NEB project and compare the low electron energy measurements with ImpactX simulations.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗

Distribution of Natural Radionuclides at the Nevada National Security Site

According to the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) publications, contributions of terrestrial gamma doses are mainly from the presence of 40 K, and of 238 U and 232 Th together with their progeny in various rocks and soils. A survey of soil distributions of radionuclides 40 K, 238 U, and 232 Th was performed at the Nevada National Security Site (NNSS) using in situ gamma-ray spectrometry with a high-purity germanium (HPGe) detector. The average activity concentrations of 40 K, 238 U, and 232 Th in natural soils at the NNSS are 867 Bq kg -1 (range from 150 ± 8 to 1297 ± 56 Bq kg -1 ), 50 Bq kg -1 (range from 29 ± 3 to 74 ± 8 Bq kg -1 ), and 56 Bq kg -1 (range from 11 ± 2 to 96 ± 10 Bq kg -1 ), respectively. The concentration at each location is significantly associated with its geological lithology. The terrestrial gamma dose rates around the NNSS were estimated from 26 to 144 nSv h -1 with mean value of 93 nSv h -1 . In conclusion, our results provide useful information about the natural background radiation and radiological effects of naturally occurring radionuclides at the NNSS.

environmental assessment↗

Remote Radiation Sensing Using Aerial and Ground Platforms

Remote sensing of ionizing radiation has a significant role in waste management, nuclear material management and nonproliferation, and radiation safety. Robotic platforms can surpass the number of tasks that are achieved by humans. With this technique, the operator's radiation exposure can be decreased. Remote sensing allows for the evaluation and monitoring of radiological contamination. Gamma-ray and neutron sensors were integrated onto the robotic platforms. This approach allows for the radiation sensor data to be dynamically tracked and mapped thus enabling further analysis of the radiation flux in temporal and spatial domains. The goal is to complete scheduled tasks while the robot is being irradiated. To achieve this, electronic components must be shielded and radiation hardened. CZT Detector: Cadmium Zinc Telluride (CZT) detector technology has been a promising solution for gamma-ray and x-ray measurements. Detector data is transferred to the Odroid minicomputer that controls and powers the module via the USB. Robot Operating System (ROS) was utilized for data acquisition and data fusion. The Mariscotti method was employed for the spectrum analysis. A function was programmed in ROS for the automatic identification of photopeaks. CLYC Detector: A Cs{sub 2}LiYCl{sub 6}:Ce{sup 3+} (CLYC) detector was used for simultaneous medium-resolution gamma-ray measurements and neutron counting. A 2.54 cm diameter photomultiplier tube (PMT) was equipped with a high voltage supply and a miniature digitizer. Gamma-ray excitation: fast core-to-valence luminescence (CVL) with 1 ns decay constant, and prompt Ce{sup 3+} emission with 50 ns decay constant. Neutron excitation: slow cerium self-trapped excitation (Ce{sup 3+} STE), 1000 ns decay constant. Radiation Source Localization: Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE) and gradient-based methods were used to locate the position of a radiation source based on measured radiation intensities. Multi-Particle Transport Code FLUKA: Estimation of radiation damage of the electronic components is important in order to optimize the robot's operational time while it is irradiated. Displacement per atom (DPA) represents the radiation damage in materials exposed to the ionizing radiation. Various shielding layers of different thickness t were analyzed (< 5% statistical error). The model of the controller of the UAS was designed in FLUKA. Conclusion: CZT and CLYC detectors were integrated onto the robotic platforms. Radiation source localization and contour mapping using robotic platforms were studied. Functions for data analysis and fusion were developed in ROS. FLUKA code was utilized to analyze DPA values. Layers of low-density and high-density materials were used to shield the UAS electronics.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

Fabrication of Low-Cost Large-Volume Ceramic A 2 HfX 6 (A= Cs or Tl, X = Cl, Br, or I) Scintillators for Gamma Ray Detection (SBIR Phase I Final Technical Report)

Scintillator crystals play an important role in the radiation detection field. Widespread use of scintillators as gamma-ray detectors is largely generated by their extensive availability and tunable properties, such high light output, high stopping power (Z eff ), fast decay time, and good proportionality. Additionally, the cost for manufacturing a scintillation detector like NaI:Tl is usually considerably lower than the cost for manufacturing a semiconductor detector like CdZnTe. Because there is no such thing as an ideal scintillation material, an application requiring certain detection characteristics may incorporate a scintillator tailored to its specific properties. The vast variety of applications and requirements necessitates more research into new scintillation materials and/or better methods of producing existing materials.The goal of this project was to grow low cost and environmentally stable inorganic transparent ceramic scintillators with excellent gamma ray resolution, excellent energy proportionality, excellent detection efficiency due to high density (>5 g/cm 3 ) and very high Z eff (55-80), and good light yields (>40,000 ph/MeV). In Phase I Xtallized Intelligence, Inc. (XI, Inc) developed a novel ceramic fabrication technique to produce low cost and environmentally stable highly efficient inorganic transparent ceramic scintillators of various dimensions. XI, Inc., collaborating with Fisk University (Fisk), investigated the scintillation properties of these new ceramic scintillators and compared them to in their single crystal counterparts. The results of this Phase I project show that successful production of high-quality inorganic halide ceramic scintillators Cs 2 HfCl 6 (CHC) and Tl 2 HfCl 6 (THC). Both ceramic CHC and THC scintillators have achieved good performance close to the performance of their single crystal counterparts. Fabricating these inorganic ceramic scintillators mitigate many issues encountered during conventional bulk crystal growth by melt methods. Additional benefits of the ceramic fabrication technique include high production yield, low production cost, fast production time, and no material waste Inorganic transparent ceramic scintillators produced in this project will enhance cost effectiveness at the instrument level based on low projected cost of the proposed compounds, as much smaller crystal sizes would be required to achieve similar efficiency as current radioisotope identification devices (RIID’s) used in homeland security applications as well as spectrometers in high energy physics applications.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

Radiolytic evaluation of select sulfur chlorides (S 2 Cl 2 and SOCl 2 ) for advanced low temperature chlorination of zirconium-based used nuclear fuel cladding

New sulfur chloride compounds—sulfur monochloride (S 2 Cl 2 ) and thionyl chloride (SOCl 2 )—have been proposed as alternative chlorinating agents for the chemical decladding of zirconium-based used nuclear fuel cladding materials. However, the radiation stability of these compounds has not been thoroughly evaluated, despite envisioned process conditions involving intense, multi-component radiation fields. Knowledge of the radiation chemistry of these sulfur chlorides is essential for the development and optimization of alternative chlorination technologies. To this end, we present preliminary findings on the gamma radiolysis of neat S 2 Cl 2 and SOCl 2 at ambient temperature up to ~ 34 MGy. In this study, Raman spectroscopy and density functional theory calculations were used to identify the Raman-active degradation products from S 2 Cl 2 and SOCl 2 radiolysis. Both sulfur chloride compounds exhibited significant radiation resistance, with respect to changes in the Raman signatures of the parent compounds and the ingrowth of Raman-active degradation products. For S 2 Cl 2 , molecular chlorine (Cl 2 ) was directly identified as the predominant degradation product, which was completely consumed at higher absorbed doses (> 9 MGy). Similarly, the main degradation product from SOCl 2 radiolysis was also Cl 2 , although in this system it continued to grow in with dose over the entire dose range. Further, an “S=O” containing degradation product(s) was also identified as a compliment to Cl 2 . Overall, the perceived radiation resistance of these sulfur chloride compounds makes them suitable for inclusion in a used nuclear fuel chemical decladding process, especially as radiolytically formed Cl 2 can be used to reform the parent compounds, thereby increasing the longevity of the solvents used.

38 RADIATION CHEMISTRY, RADIOCHEMISTRY, AND NUCLEA↗

Effects of X-Rays, Electron Beam, and Gamma Irradiation on Chemical and Physical Properties of EVA Multilayer Films

Gamma-ray irradiation, using the cobalt-60 isotope, is the most common radiation modality used for medical device and biopharmaceutical products sterilization. Although X-ray and electron-beam (e-beam) sterilization technologies are mature and have been in use for decades, impediments remain to switching to these sterilization modalities because of lack of data on the resulting radiation effects for the associated polymers, as well as a lack of education for manufacturers and regulators on the viability of these sterilization alternatives. For this study, the compatibility of ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) multilayer films with different ionizing radiation sterilization (X-ray, e-beam, and gamma irradiation) is determined by measuring chemical and physical film properties using high performance liquid chromatography, differential scanning calorimetry, Fourier-Transform InfraRed spectroscopy (FTIR), surface energy measurement, and electron spin resonance techniques. The results indicate that the three irradiation modalities induce no differences in thermal properties in the investigated dose range. Gamma and X-Ray irradiations generate the same level of reactive species in the EVA multilayer film, whereas e-beam generates a reduced quantity of reactive species.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

Evaluation of gamma-ray transmission through rectangular collimator slits for application in nuclear fuel spectrometry

Gamma-ray spectrometry is widely applied in several science fields, and in particular in non-destructive gamma scanning and gamma emission tomography of irradiated nuclear fuel. Usually, a collimator is used in the experimental setup, to selectively interrogate a region of interest in the fuel. For the optimization of instrument design, as well as for planning measurement campaigns, predictive models for the transmitted gamma-ray intensity through the collimator are needed. Commonly, Monte Carlo Radiation Transport tools are used for accurate prediction of gamma-ray transport, however, the long computation time requirements when used in low-efficiency experimental setups present challenges. Here, the full-energy peak intensity transmitted through a rectangular collimator slit was examined. A uniform planar surface source emitting isotropically was considered, and the rate of photons reaching an ideal counter plane on the opposite side of the collimator was evaluated by analytical integration. To find a closed-form primitive function, some idealizations were required, and thereby parametric models were obtained for the optical field of view, dependent on slit dimensions (length, height and width) and source-to-collimator distance. For contributions from outside the optical field of view, where a closed-form expression cannot be found, fast numerical integral methods were instead used. The results were validated using the Monte Carlo code MCNP6 and show an agreement within three percent for the numerical method. For the analytical method, deviations up to tens of percent were obtained, which is deemed to still be sufficient for instrument design and measurement planning, where often the order of magnitude of the count rate is not a priori known. The method is planned for use in iterative optimization routines in the design of Gamma Emission Tomography devices, as well as for the prediction of gamma spectra obtained in the planning of fuel inspections. An application of the proposed method was demonstrated in spectrum prediction for a short cooling-time fuel rod test from the Halden reactor.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗

Properties of the Prompt Optical Counterpart Arising from the Cooling of Electrons in Gamma-Ray Bursts

This work extends a contemporaneous effort to study the properties of the lower-energy counterpart synchrotron emission produced by the cooling of relativistic gamma-ray burst (GRB) electrons through radiation (synchrotron and self-Compton) emission and adiabatic losses. We derive the major characteristics (pulse duration, lag time after burst, and brightness relative to the burst) of the prompt optical counterpart (POC) occurring during or after the GRB. Depending on the magnetic field lifetime, duration of electron injection, and electron transit time Δt o from hard X-ray (GRB) to optical-emitting energies, a POC may appear during the GRB pulse (of duration δt γ ) or after (delayed OC). The signature of counterparts arising from the cooling of GRB electrons is that POC pulses (Δto < δtγ) last as long as the corresponding GRB pulse (δt o ≃ δt γ ), while delayed OC pulses (Δt o > δt γ ) last as long as the transit time (δt o ≃ Δt o ). If OC variability can be measured, then another signature for this OC mechanism is that the GRB variability is passed on to POCs but not to delayed OCs. Within the GRB electron cooling model for counterparts, POCs should be on average dimmer than delayed ones (consistent with the data), and harder GRB low-energy slopes β LE should be associated more often with the dimmer POCs. The latter sets an observational bias against detecting POCs from (the cooling of electrons in) GRBs with a hard slope β LE , making it more likely that the detected POCs of such bursts arise from another mechanism.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

Milestone 1.2.15: Feasibility of In Situ Accelerated Aluminum Coupon Radiolysis by Synchrotron X-Rays

Extended dry storage of aluminum-clad spent nuclear fuel (ASNF) requires an assessment of the radiolytic generation of molecular hydrogen gas (H2) from the ASNF’s corrosion layers. H2 accumulation can potentially lead to storage canister embrittlement/rupture and the accumulation of flammable gas mixtures in accident scenarios. To date, computational models have been developed for the prediction of radiolytic H2 generation from samples exposed to lower absorbed dose regimes (up to ~3 MGy). However, greater accuracy is needed for higher absorbed doses (> 25 MGy) where the concentration of H2 ultimately reaches a steady-state. Data in this area is limited due to the amount of time taken (months) to accumulate such high gamma doses. Furthermore, a recent study observed radiation-induced damage to the surface of pre-corroded aluminum alloy coupons at high absorbed gamma doses. Despite this observation and its implications, there is currently no computational connection between the radiolytic formation of H2 and changes in the composition and morphology of the cladding’s corrosion layers with absorbed dose. To develop a better understanding of the processes and effects described above, the present study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of leveraging synchrotron x-ray capabilities for coupled accelerated irradiation and in situ surface characterization of ASNF alloys. To that end, National Synchrotron Light Source II (NSLS-II) beamtime was secured and a series of aluminum alloy 1100 (AA1100) wires, prepared under a variety of conditions, were interrogated using ex situ x-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) techniques at Idaho National Laboratory (INL) and ex situ and in situ XRD capabilities at the NSLS-II x-ray powder diffraction (XPD) beamline. Results indicated that performing synchrotron XRD using the available XPD beamline configuration can provide sufficient radiation dose but cannot discern changes in the composition and morphology of sample corrosion layers. Additionally, ex situ XRD and SEM data from Idaho National Laboratory (INL) indicated that the pre-corrosion of AA1100 wires did not generate an appreciably thick corrosion layer, as compared with previous aluminum coupon studies. These thinner surface corrosion layers were not sufficient for detection by both ex situ and in situ synchrotron XRD, specifically under consideration of the NSLS-II XPD beamline’s configuration primarily capturing information from the sample’s bulk material, i.e., aluminum metal. In summary, the use of the NSLS-II XPD beamline for promoting accelerated radiolysis and in situ surface characterization is not appropriate for this program’s goals.

38 RADIATION CHEMISTRY, RADIOCHEMISTRY, AND NUCLEA↗

Fast Neutron Irradiation of a Multichannel JFET-Based Optical Encoder

Modern electrical components are susceptible to damage from high levels of radiation and extreme temperatures found near reactors in terrestrial nuclear power plants and in aerospace applications. Radiation-hardened electronics are being developed, largely for the aerospace industry, but they sometimes rely on application-specific, small-batch semiconductor fabrication processes. These processes tend to be prohibitively expensive to develop and maintain outside major industrial facilities or governmental agencies. Recently, commercially available, nonradiation-rated junction-gate field-effect transistors (JFETs) were shown to maintain their functionality at gamma doses exceeding 1 MGy, suggesting that nonrated, commercially available electrical components could be used to develop systems that are tolerant to ionizing radiation. However, gamma ray survival is not indicative of neutron dose survival, and few studies characterize JFETs under neutron irradiation. To address this knowledge gap, a JFET-based analog multiplexer and optical pulsewidth modulation (PWM) encoder was developed and irradiated using a 252 Cf source to 1.6×10 13 n/cm 2 . The multiplexed optical encoder (MOE) system maintained functionality throughout testing and showed little evidence of radiation effects. These results indicate that circuitry tolerant to fast neutron damage can be developed using low-cost, nonradiation-rated, commercially available JFETs, which could provide a lower production cost alternative to specialized semiconductor processes when designing and building electronics better able to survive neutron irradiation.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗

Radiation-Induced Chemical Yields of Carbon-Centered Radicals and Hydrogen Atoms from the Gamma Irradiation of n -Dodecane

Here, this study investigates the radiolytic yields of carbon-centered radicals and hydrogen atoms in n-dodecane under gamma irradiation. Utilizing molecular iodine (I 2 ) and 2,4,6-tri-tert-butylnitrosobenzene (3tBNB) as radical scavengers, we quantified the yields of molecular hydrogen and various carbon-centered radicals formed from bond scission of the solvent excited states. The yield of primary alkyl radicals was significantly lower than that of the secondary radicals, aligning with expected stabilities and bond dissociation energies. For the overall loss of n-dodecane, total yields of 0.598 ± 0.004 species/100 eV for C–C bond scission, 1.648 ± 0.012 species/100 eV for C–H bond scission, and 3.20 ± 0.10 species/100 eV for unimolecular H 2 elimination were determined. Notably, the I 2 scavenging data provided robust estimates, while the 3tBNB displayed lower efficiency in radical trapping. This research enhances our understanding of radiolytic processes in n-dodecane and offers insights for future studies on the behavior of hydrocarbons under ionizing radiation, with implications for improving UNF reprocessing strategies.

38 - RADIATION CHEMISTRY, RADIOCHEMISTRY, AND NUCL↗

Study on the heat removal for fuel debris using heat pipes

Simple method to retrieve fuel debris by meta-stabilizing: Heat removal system is needed. Heat removal using heat pipes: Cover fuel debris with geopolymer. What is a heat pipe: Heat transport medium with cycles of evaporation and condensation. It consists of the container, working fluid, and the wick. Advantage: Internal vacuum structure, small amount of working fluid, Massive heat transfer due to high-speed movement of hydraulic fluid. Cycle of hydraulic fluid with capillary structure. Because the cycle works independently of gravity, we can set heat pipes at free angle. We evaluated the availability of heat pipes within PCV. Investigation of hydrogen and oxygen concentration of internal gas collected by water replacement method: Non-condensable gas was confirmed inside the heat pipe irradiated by gamma rays. The heat removal effect by the heat pipe greatly descends to the extent close to the copper pipe by Gamma ray irradiation. The above reason was presumed to be that non-condensable gas was generated by radiolysis and the active length of the condensation part of the heat pipe decreased. Counter measures to decrease the amount of non-condensable gas is necessary for using heat pipes under radiation environment. We are doing the experiments to check changes in non-condensable gas generation by using catalysts or other kinds of liquids under Gamma ray irradiation.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

Oxy-fluorophosphate glass doped SmO{sup 3+} as solid state dosimeter via spectroscopic techniques

In the present work, collective studies on optical, structural and magnetic properties of 0.5% SmO{sup 3+} ions in new easily melting fluorophosphate glass of the basic composition 70P{sub 2}O{sub 5}–20AlF{sub 3}–10NaF were carried out. The same combined spectral measurements (UV–Vis, FTIR, and ESR) were repeated after successive gamma irradiation. These collective spectral studies are expected to throw some insight on the effect of host fluorophosphate glass on these selected spectral properties of samarium ions together with identifying the effects of gamma irradiation on both the host fluorophosphate glass and on samarium ions and reaching to the resultant generated induced defects. The experimental results exhibit that, the slope of the UV–Vis line is sufficiently high in order to this tool is preferable to be elected as a suitable tool for the dosimetric purpose for this glass composition. The results in this manuscript propose that it is possible to use these techniques to determine if the glass sample may be used as solid-state dosimeters for gamma dose measurements in the range from 0.1 up to 15 kGy due to their linearity with the absorbed dose, color change, low fading for time periods up to 25 days and good response reproducibility.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗

Gamma single-hit detector for NDSE

2021 annual project report for SDRD Program. Edited and approved by author. Will be made available on SDRD website in future. An associated abstract/summary for this longer report will be submitted to STIP as well.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗

A Cross-correlation Study between IceCube Neutrino Events and the FERMI Unresolved Gamma-Ray Sky

With the coincident detections of electromagnetic radiation together with gravitational waves (GW170817) or neutrinos (TXS 0506+056), the new era of multimessenger astrophysics has begun. Of particular interest are the searches for correlation between the high-energy astrophysical neutrinos detected by the IceCube Observatory and gamma-ray photons detected by the Fermi Large Area Telescope (LAT). So far, only sources detected by the LAT have been considered in correlation with IceCube neutrinos, neglecting any emission from sources too faint to be resolved individually. Here we present the first cross-correlation analysis considering the unresolved gamma-ray background (UGRB) and IceCube events. We perform a thorough sensitivity study, and, given the lack of identified correlation, we place upper limits on the fraction of the observed neutrinos that would be produced in proton–proton or proton–$γ$ interactions from the population of sources contributing to the UGRB emission and dominating its spatial anisotropy (aka blazars). Our analysis suggests that, under the assumption that there is no intrinsic cutoff and/or hardening of the spectrum above Fermi-LAT energies, and that all gamma rays from the unresolved blazars dominating the UGRB fluctuation field are produced by neutral pions from $p–p$ ($p–γ$) interactions, up to 60% (30%) of such a population may contribute to the total neutrino events observed by IceCube. This translates into an O (1%) maximum contribution to the astrophysical high-energy neutrino flux observed by IceCube at 100 TeV.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

Milestone 1.2.16. Reconciling the Impacts of Thermal Pretreatment on Radiation-Induced H2 Generation from Aluminum-Clad Spent Nuclear Fuel Surrogate Materials

To support the technical basis for the extended dry storage of aluminum-clad spent nuclear fuel (ASNF), thermal pretreatment procedures to minimize the radiation-induced generation of molecular hydrogen (H2) have been investigated. The aim of thermal pretreatment is to eliminate the residual adsorbed water content on the ASNF’s corrosion layers, precursors for H2 generation. To date, irradiation studies in this area have found conflicting results for the effectiveness of thermal pretreatment procedures. The aim of this study was to reconcile those differences. However, the presented results, which utilized a modified in situ thermal pretreatment procedure, afforded H2 yield data that further indicates that thermal pretreatment does not significantly reduce the radiation-induced yield of H2 from gamma irradiated ASNF surrogate materials. Assessment of the differences between thermal pretreatment studies suggests that stainless-steel—present in the irradiation setup of studies that demonstrated a reduction in the yield of H2 with thermal pretreatment—may afford not only unanticipated interfacial chemistry, but also the formation and radiolytic contribution of iron oxides to the chemistry underpinning the formation of H2 in these systems. Given the Department of Energy Standard Canister—proposed for the extended dry storage of ASNF—is predominantly composed of stainless-steel, the potential contribution of stainless-steel and its corrosion layers to radiolytic H2 production should be further investigated. This research was funded by the U.S. Department of Environmental Management, Office of Technology Development, under contract DE-AC07-05ID14517.

38 RADIATION CHEMISTRY, RADIOCHEMISTRY, AND NUCLEA↗

Neutron Gamma LAMP Software version 1

The Localization and Mapping Platform (LAMP) software fuses radiation and contextual data to produce 3-D maps that locate and identify gamma-ray emitting sources in complex environments. It enables data collection, fusion, and processing onboard the LAMP system in handheld configurations, and enables near-real-time 3-D mapping from onboard an unmanned aerial system (UAS). This software enables a real-time 3-D gamma-ray mapping capability that is not available commercially. This software disclosure is for a new simultaneous gamma-ray and neutron mapping software update to the original LAMP software.

Cates, Joshua↗