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DOE OSTI2025

Studying the Power Sources behind Type Ic Supernovae

Astrophysical transients can be powered by a broad range of energy sources, including shock heating (internal and external shocks), decay of radioactive isotopes, and long-lived central engines (magnetar and fallback). The dominant energy source for astrophysical transients depends on the nature of the explosive engine and its progenitor. To model all transients, light-curve codes must include all of these energy sources. Here, we present a supernova light-curve code implementing analytic source models to compare the role of different energy sources in these transients. To demonstrate the utility of this code, we conduct an extensive study of Type Ic broad-line (Ic-BL) supernovae. A diverse set of energy sources have been linked to Ic-BL supernovae, making them an excellent candidate for this light-curve code. In this paper, we explore which features of the explosion (mass, velocity, etc.) affect the Type Ic supernovae light curves, focusing on shock-interaction and radioactive-decay energy sources. Although the explosion properties under both energy sources can be tuned to match the peak emission, matching the light-curve evolution in many Ic-BL supernovae requires fine-tuned conditions. We find that shock interactions in the stellar wind are likely to be the dominant energy source at peak for these supernovae.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2026

Dwarf Galaxies at Cosmic Noon: New JWST Constraints on Satellite Models and Subhalo Tidal Evolution

The advent of JWST has revolutionized the study of faint satellite galaxies at z ≳ 1, enabling statistical constraints on galaxy evolution and the galaxy–halo connection in a previously unexplored mass and redshift regime. We compare satellite abundances at 1 < z < 3.5 from recent JWST observations with predictions from cosmological dark-matter-only zoom-in simulations. We identify and quantify several sources of biases that can impact theoretical satellite counts, finding that assumptions about subhalo tidal evolution introduce the largest uncertainty in predictions for the satellite mass function. Using a flexible galaxy disruption model, we explore a range of disruption scenarios, spanning hydrodynamically motivated and idealized prescriptions, to bracket plausible physical outcomes. We show that varying galaxy durability can change the predicted satellite mass functions by a factor of ∼3.5. The JWST data and our fiducial model are consistent within 1σ–2σ across the full redshift (1 < z < 3.5) and stellar mass (M⋆ > 10 7 M ⊙ ) range probed. We find evidence that subhalos are at least as long-lived as predicted by hydrodynamic simulations. Our framework will enable robust constraints on the tidal evolution of subhalos with future observations. This work presents the first direct comparison between cosmological models and observations of the high-redshift satellite population in this low-mass regime. These results showcase JWST’s emerging power to test structure formation in the first half of the Universe in a new domain and to constrain the physical processes driving the evolution of low-mass galaxies across cosmic time.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Magnetized Outflows from Short-lived Neutron Star Merger Remnants Can Produce a Blue Kilonova

Abstract We present a 3D general-relativistic magnetohydrodynamic simulation of a short-lived neutron star remnant formed in the aftermath of a binary neutron star merger. The simulation uses an M1 neutrino transport scheme to track neutrino–matter interactions and is well suited to studying the resulting nucleosynthesis and kilonova emission. A magnetized wind is driven from the remnant and ejects neutron-rich material at a quasi-steady-state rate of 0.8 × 10 −1 M ⊙ s −1 . We find that the ejecta in our simulations underproduce r -process abundances beyond the second r -process peak. For sufficiently long-lived remnants, these outflows alone can produce blue kilonovae, including the blue kilonova component observed for AT2017gfo.

Astronomy & Astrophysics↗

DOE OSTI2025

High Optical-to-X-Ray Polarization Ratio Reveals Compton Scattering in BL Lacertae’s Jet

Blazars, supermassive black hole systems with highly relativistic jets aligned with the line of sight, are the most powerful long-lived emitters of electromagnetic emission in the Universe. We report here on a radio-to-gamma-ray multiwavelength campaign on the blazar BL Lacertae with unprecedented polarimetric coverage from radio to X-ray wavelengths. The observations caught an extraordinary event on 2023 November 10–18, when the degree of linear polarization of optical synchrotron radiation reached a record value of 47.5%. In stark contrast, the Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer found that the X-ray (Compton scattering or hadron-induced) emission was polarized at less than 7.4% (3 σ confidence level). We argue here that this observational result rules out a hadronic origin of the high-energy emission and strongly favors a leptonic (Compton scattering) origin, thereby breaking the degeneracy between hadronic and leptonic emission models for BL Lacertae and demonstrating the power of multiwavelength polarimetry to address this question. Furthermore, the multiwavelength flux and polarization variability, featuring an extremely prominent rise and decay of the optical polarization degree, is interpreted for the first time by the relaxation of a magnetic “spring” embedded in the newly injected plasma. This suggests that the plasma jet can maintain a predominant toroidal magnetic field component parsecs away from the central engine.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2025

Bioaerosols as indicators of central Arctic ice nucleating particle sources

The Arctic is warming at a rapid rate, with implications for microbial communities as the ecosystems change. Some microbes and biogenic materials can affect the persistence of long-lived mixed-phase clouds by serving as ice nucleating particles (INPs). The presence of INPs modulates the cloud phase, and long-term measurements are important to elucidate their seasonal sources and to predict future change. The Multidisciplinary drifting Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate (MOSAiC) expedition in 2019–2020 provided the first year-long measurements of bioaerosols and INPs in the central Arctic, with 3 d filters for amplicon sequencing and cumulative INP concentrations from −5 to −30 °C. Here, we investigated the INP seasonal cycle and its relation to the seasonal cycle of bacteria and eukaryotes. INPs were greatly elevated and compositionally similar in summer, aligning with a greater prevalence of local bioaerosol sources, but, despite this, a diverse mixture of sources (marine and terrestrial) was present all times. A common broader Arctic INP population is hypothesized for much of the year by comparable coincident data collected in Svalbard and a sensitivity of both the INPs and bioaerosols to large-scale events.

Barry, Kevin R. [Colorado State Univ., Fort Collin↗

DOE OSTI2024

HSW-V v1.0: localized injections of interactive volcanic aerosols and their climate impacts in a simple general circulation model

Abstract. A new set of standalone parameterizations is presented for simulating the injection, evolution, and radiative forcing by stratospheric volcanic aerosols against an idealized Held–Suarez–Williamson (HSW) atmospheric background in the Energy Exascale Earth System Model version 2 (E3SMv2). In this model configuration (HSW with enabled volcanism, HSW-V), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and ash are injected into the atmosphere with a specified profile in the vertical, and they proceed to follow a simple exponential decay. The SO2 decay is modeled as a perfect conversion to a long-living sulfate aerosol which persists in the stratosphere. All three species are implemented as tracers in the model framework and are transported by the dynamical core's advection algorithm. The aerosols contribute simultaneously to local heating of the stratosphere and cooling of the surface by a simple plane-parallel Beer–Lambert law applied on two zonally symmetric radiation broadbands in the longwave and shortwave ranges. It is shown that the implementation parameters can be tuned to produce realistic temperature anomaly signatures of large volcanic events. In particular, results are shown for an ensemble of runs that mimic the volcanic eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991. The design requires no coupling to microphysical subgrid-scale parameterizations and thus approaches the computational affordability of prescribed aerosol forcing strategies. The idealized simulations contain a single isolated volcanic event against a statistically uniform climate, where no background aerosols or other sources of externally forced variability are present. HSW-V represents a simpler-to-understand tool for the development of climate source-to-impact attribution methods.

Hollowed, Joseph P. (ORCID:0000000286581672)↗

DOE OSTI2024

The need for carbon-emissions-driven climate projections in CMIP7

Abstract. Previous phases of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) have primarily focused on simulations driven by atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs), for both idealized model experiments and climate projections of different emissions scenarios. We argue that although this approach was practical to allow parallel development of Earth system model simulations and detailed socioeconomic futures, carbon cycle uncertainty as represented by diverse, process-resolving Earth system models (ESMs) is not manifested in the scenario outcomes, thus omitting a dominant source of uncertainty in meeting the Paris Agreement. Mitigation policy is defined in terms of human activity (including emissions), with strategies varying in their timing of net-zero emissions, the balance of mitigation effort between short-lived and long-lived climate forcers, their reliance on land use strategy, and the extent and timing of carbon removals. To explore the response to these drivers, ESMs need to explicitly represent complete cycles of major GHGs, including natural processes and anthropogenic influences. Carbon removal and sequestration strategies, which rely on proposed human management of natural systems, are currently calculated in integrated assessment models (IAMs) during scenario development with only the net carbon emissions passed to the ESM. However, proper accounting of the coupled system impacts of and feedback on such interventions requires explicit process representation in ESMs to build self-consistent physical representations of their potential effectiveness and risks under climate change. We propose that CMIP7 efforts prioritize simulations driven by CO2 emissions from fossil fuel use and projected deployment of carbon dioxide removal technologies, as well as land use and management, using the process resolution allowed by state-of-the-art ESMs to resolve carbon–climate feedbacks. Post-CMIP7 ambitions should aim to incorporate modeling of non-CO2 GHGs (in particular, sources and sinks of methane and nitrous oxide) and process-based representation of carbon removal options. These developments will allow three primary benefits: (1) resources to be allocated to policy-relevant climate projections and better real-time information related to the detectability and verification of emissions reductions and their relationship to expected near-term climate impacts, (2) scenario modeling of the range of possible future climate states including Earth system processes and feedbacks that are increasingly well-represented in ESMs, and (3) optimal utilization of the strengths of ESMs in the wider context of climate modeling infrastructure (which includes simple climate models, machine learning approaches and kilometer-scale climate models).

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2025

First experimental determination of the ⁴⁰Ar(𝑛, 2𝑛)³⁹Ar reaction cross section and ³⁹Ar production in Earth’s atmosphere

The cosmogenic ³⁹Ar(t1∕2 = 268 years) isotope of argon is used for geophysical dating and tracing of underground and ocean water, as well as ice owing to its appropriate half-life and chemical inertness as a noble gas; ³⁹Ar serves also in nuclear weapon test monitoring. We measured for the first time the total cross section of the main ³⁹Ar cosmogenic production reaction in the atmosphere, namely ⁴⁰Ar(𝑛, 2𝑛)39 Ar, using 14.8 ± 0.3 MeV neutrons. The neutrons, produced by a deuterium-tritium generator, impinged on a stainless steel sphere filled with Ar gas highly enriched in the ⁴⁰Ar isotope and were monitored by a stack of fast-neutron activation foils. The reaction yield was measured by atom counting of long-lived ³⁹Ar with noble gas accelerator mass spectrometry and, independently, by decay counting relative to atmospheric argon (³⁹Ar/Ar= 8.12 × 10−16 ). A total ⁴⁰Ar(𝑛, 2𝑛)39 Ar cross section of 610 ± 100 mb was determined at 14.8 ± 0.3 MeV incident neutron energy. This result serves as a benchmark for recent theoretical calculations and evaluations, found to reproduce well the experimental total cross section. We use these energy-dependent theoretical cross sections together with experimental spectra of cosmogenic neutrons at different altitudes to calculate the global average rate of neutron-induced ³⁹Ar atmospheric production, resulting in 770 ± 240 39 Ar atoms/cm²/day. The secular equilibrium between the ³⁹Ar calculated production rate and radioactive decay rate leads to a partial isotopic abundance ³⁹Ar/Ar = (5.9 ± 1.8) × 10−16 , showing that ≈73% of atmospheric ³⁹Ar is produced by cosmogenic neutrons, the remaining part believed to be induced by muons and high-energy 𝛾 rays. The ⁴⁰Ar(𝑛, 2𝑛)³⁹Ar cross section at 14 MeV is also a key parameter for quantifying the anthropogenic contribution to atmospheric 39 Ar produced during the thermonuclear tests of the 1960s. We estimate that anthropogenic ³⁹Ar accounts for roughly 20% of the present atmospheric inventory.

39 Ar atmospheric production↗

DOE OSTI2023

Arctic Mixed-Phase Cloud Base Ice Precipitation Properties During the M-PACE Field Campaign

Cloud-climate feedbacks are still the greatest source of uncertainty in current climate projections. Arctic clouds, which are predominantly stratiform and supercooled, often long-lived, and nearly-continuously precipitate ice particles, contribute roughly 10% of the uncertainty attributed to the global cloud feedback. This Arctic cloud uncertainty is driven by incomplete observational and theoretical knowledge required to estimate and explain the state and active processes occurring in those clouds. A focus on ice precipitation properties at Arctic cloud base rather than the surface deconfounds the product of cloud condensate sink processes from the influence of the atmospheric thermodynamic state below cloud base, rendering cloud-base properties a more appealing target for inference and evaluation of model simulations. This dataset provides a set of 25 samples from the M-PACE field campaign, all of which were retrieved using the synthesis of ARM radar and lidar measurements. The retrieved ice precipitation variables in this dataset include, among others, the ice number concentration, water content, PSD parameters, precipitation rate, mass-weighted fall velocity, vertical air motion, and effective radius, all of which are highly valuable for model evaluation and a general understanding of polar cloud sink processes. Each variable sample includes its mean value and associated uncertainty. Additional variables based on ARM measurements (liquid layer statistics, etc.) are included in this dataset as well. The retrieval algorithm and analysis of this dataset are described in Silber (JGR, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JD038202).

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2023

Arctic Mixed-Phase Cloud Base Ice Precipitation Properties Over the NSA Site

Cloud-climate feedbacks are still the greatest source of uncertainty in current climate projections. Arctic clouds, which are predominantly stratiform and supercooled, often long-lived, and nearly continuously precipitate ice particles, contribute roughly 10% of the uncertainty attributed to the global cloud feedback. This arctic cloud uncertainty is driven by incomplete observational and theoretical knowledge required to estimate and explain the state and active processes occurring in those clouds. A focus on ice precipitation properties at arctic cloud base rather than the surface deconfounds the product of cloud condensate sink processes from the influence of the atmospheric thermodynamic state below cloud base, rendering cloud-base properties a more appealing target for inference and evaluation of model simulations. This data set provides more than 1800 samples of cloud-base ice precipitation properties over Utqiagvik, North Slope of Alaska, all of which were retrieved using the synthesis of ARM radar and lidar measurements. The retrieved ice precipitation variables in this data set include, among others, the ice number concentration, water content, PSD parameters, precipitation rate, mass-weighted fall velocity, vertical air motion, and effective radius, all of which are highly valuable for model evaluation and a general understanding of polar cloud sink processes. Each variable sample includes its mean value and associated uncertainty. Additional variables based on ARM measurements (liquid layer statistics, etc.) are included in this data set. The retrieval algorithm and analysis of this data set are described in Silber (JGR, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JD038202).

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2026

Co-Design of Charge Transport Superhighways to Connect Catalytic Sites in Soft Photoelectrochemical Systems

Efficient photon-to-electron-to-molecule conversion requires multi-length scale control over charge transport pathways, where electronic charges are delivered to catalytic sites under high mass transport flux. A fundamental question is how can we co-design charge transport pathways to promote efficient charge transfer to/from catalytic sites in complex three-dimensional architectures? Soft conducting polymer systems offer exceptional promise to provide three-dimensional charge transport networks, where electrolyte (ion and solvent) can interdiffuse to promote long-lived charge carriers and the molecular nature allows for strategic synthetic design of catalytic sites. Herein we combine theoretical and experimental approaches to investigate the earliest stages of photoelectrochemical deposition of near-surface catalytic sites (Pt) on soft bulk heterojunction polymeric semiconductors composed of a prototype donor (PTB7-Th) and a prototype acceptor (N2200) as a model system towards better understanding molecular catalyst-polymer site interactions. We focus initially on photoelectrochemical deposition of low Pt loadings, nanoparticle sizes (formed by progressive nucleation) below 20 nm, for both density functional theory (DFT) modeling studies and for spectroscopic characterization using surface-sensitive X-ray and UV-photoemission (XPS/UPS). DFT modeling of “n-type” N2200 slabs reveal for the first time that sulfur atoms in the thiophene units serve as the lowest-energy adsorption sites for single Pt atoms, while larger Pt clusters engage more complexly with both thiophene and naphthalene diimide (NDI) core sites. Changes in chemical composition observed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) support the DFT predictions, and the angle-resolved measurements reveal that Pt nucleation initiates at subsurface sites which appear to be localized active domains that promote charge transport/transfer and enable vertical growth toward the surface. These results suggest that light-activated Pt nanoparticle deposition decorates energetically distinct sites, where photoactivity is dictated by the local energetics of those sites, and the fact that they represent the termini of charge transport “super-highways” – a small percentage of the total volume of the donor/acceptor polymeric active layer which carries most of the photocurrent generated during both Pt deposition and photoelectrochemical HER. We posit that these initial studies provide a foundational strategy for design of catalytic sites in the near surface regions of complex polymeric materials and advancing soft semiconductor-based photoelectrochemical systems. Achieving a nanometer-scale understanding of catalyst deposition and the impact of local composition and energetics on that placement, should ultimately provide the design guidelines (co-design) for a broad array of catalysts at sites that optimize that efficiency and maximize platform durability.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2026

From Vehicles to Systems: Understanding Freight Transportation as a Connected Energy, Infrastructure, and Operations System

The U.S. freight system may need to handle 50% more cargo by 2050. Upgrading our freight system requires modernizing capital-intensive, long-lived assets including freight trains, ports, and terminal infrastructure. NLR is advancing freight system solutions spanning ALTRIOS, the first digital twin for the full freight rail system; ALTRIOS-LIFTS, which can create digital twins of freight terminals; INFORMES, the first national model of the intermodal freight system; MARINESim, used to simulate and optimize ocean-going vessel operations; and more. These modeling and simulation tools enable data-driven decision-making across freight modes and systems.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2024

Development of CD46 targeted alpha theranostics in prostate cancer using 134 Ce/ 225 Ac-Macropa-PEG 4 -YS5

Rationale: 225 Ac, a long-lived α-emitter with a half-life of 9.92 days, has garnered significant attention as a therapeutic radionuclide when coupled with monoclonal antibodies and other targeting vectors. Nevertheless, its clinical utility has been hampered by potential off-target toxicity, a lack of optimized chelators for 225 Ac, and limitations in radiolabeling methods. In a prior study evaluating the effectiveness of CD46-targeted radioimmunotherapy, we found great therapeutic efficacy but also significant toxicity at higher doses. To address these challenges, we have developed a radioimmunoconjugate called 225 Ac-Macropa-PEG 4 -YS5, incorporating a stable PEGylated linker to maximize tumoral uptake and increase tumor-to-background ratios. Our research demonstrates that this conjugate exhibits greater anti-tumor efficacy while minimizing toxicity in prostate cancer 22Rv1 tumors. Methods: We synthesized Macropa.NCS and Macropa-PEG 4/8 -TFP esters and prepared Macropa-PEG 0/4/8 -YS5 (with nearly ~1:1 ratio of macropa chelator to antibody YS5) as well as DOTA-YS5 conjugates. These conjugates were then radiolabeled with 225 Ac in a 2 M NH 4 OAc solution at 30 °C, followed by purification using YM30K centrifugal purification. Subsequently, we conducted biodistribution studies and evaluated antitumor activity in nude mice (nu/nu) bearing prostate 22Rv1 xenografts in both single-dose and fractionated dosing studies. Micro-PET imaging studies were performed with 134 Ce-Macropa-PEG 0/4/8 -YS5 in 22Rv1 xenografts for 7 days. Toxicity studies were also performed in healthy athymic nude mice. Results: As expected, we achieved a >95% radiochemical yield when labeling Macropa-PEG 0/4/8 -YS5 with 225 Ac, regardless of the chelator ratios (ranging from 1 to 7.76 per YS5 antibody). The isolated yield exceeded 60% after purification. Such high conversions were not observed with the DOTA-YS5 conjugate, even at a higher ratio of 8.5 chelators per antibody (RCY of 83%, an isolated yield of 40%). Biodistribution analysis at 7 days post-injection revealed higher tumor uptake for the 225 Ac-Macropa-PEG 4 -YS5 (82.82 ± 38.27 %ID/g) compared to other conjugates, namely 225 Ac-Macropa-PEG 0/8 -YS5 (38.2 ± 14.4/36.39 ± 12.4 %ID/g) and 225 Ac-DOTA-YS5 (29.35 ± 7.76 %ID/g). The PET Imaging of 134 Ce-Macropa-PEG 0/4/8 -YS5 conjugates resulted in a high tumor uptake, and tumor to background ratios. In terms of antitumor activity, 225 Ac-Macropa-PEG 4 -YS5 exhibited a substantial response, leading to prolonged survival compared to 225 Ac-DOTA-YS5, particularly when administered at 4.625 kBq doses, in single or fractionated dose regimens. Chronic toxicity studies observed mild to moderate renal toxicity at 4.625 and 9.25 kBq doses. Conclusions: Our study highlights the promise of 225 Ac-Macropa-PEG 4 -YS5 for targeted alpha particle therapy. The 225 Ac-Macropa-PEG 4 -YS5 conjugate demonstrates improved biodistribution, reduced off-target binding, and enhanced therapeutic efficacy, particularly at lower doses, compared to 225 Ac-DOTA-YS5. Incorporating theranostic 134 Ce PET imaging further enhances the versatility of macropa-PEG conjugates, offering a more effective and safer approach to cancer treatment. Overall, this methodology has a high potential for broader clinical applications.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2023

PARTITIONING AND TRANSMUTATION OF USED NUCLEAR FUEL IN SUPPORT OF GEOLOGICAL WASTE DISPOSAL

Nuclear energy is a low-carbon technology that generates bulk baseload electricity and supports long-lasting eco-friendly sustainability goals. However, it still faces challenges, such as the securing and managing of long-lived nuclear actinides and fission products—most notably the used fuel, which is considered high-level waste (HLW). Direct geological waste disposal would be the most economical option for HLW but requires highly qualified sites whose geophysical behavior will remain stable for 10,000 years. Partitioning and transmutation (P&T) of used fuel reduces radioactivity and decay heat generation, enabling efficient geological waste disposal. P&T research and development, along with the prospects of P&T techniques such as wet/dry separation and accelerator-driven systems, were reviewed to identify critical needs that must be met to foster their successful implementation.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

DOE OSTI2023

PARTITIONING AND TRANSMUTATION OF USED NUCLEAR FUEL IN SUPPORT OF GEOLOGICAL WASTE DISPOSAL

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

DOE OSTI2024

The Sustainable Decarbonization Challenge

Many countries have decarbonization plans that include transitioning to clean energy. Because of this, PV deployment is projected to at least double or triple in the next ten years. As we ramp up manufacturing and deployment, we aim to sustainably establish secure and just supply chains while reducing environmental impacts. This talk presents our analysis of the virgin material demands, addresses waste concerns regarding quantity and toxicity, and establishes sustainability actions that the PV community can take to ensure sustainability. The takeaway actions are prioritizing reliable, high-quality, and long-lived PV modules and enabling the fast deployment needed for decarbonization via more research and effective communication.

circular economy↗

DOE OSTI2024

Efficiency of ML Anomaly Detection Triggers for Emerging Jets

Novel machine learning-based anomaly detection Level 1 (L1) triggers are currently under development at CMS, namely AXOL1TL and CICADA. The former employs a variational autoencoder, while the latter utilizes a convolutional autoencoder. These triggers aim to balance rate reduction with model independence, enabling the selection of potentially significant events that might be overlooked by traditional triggers relying on basic kinematic variable selections. Consequently, they have the potential to enhance signals indicative of physics beyond the Standard Model, such as those associated with emerging jets. Such signals are predicted by models featuring a composite dark sector where long-lived particles decay into Standard Model jets with displaced tracks and numerous vertices. This study evaluates the efficiency of these anomaly detection triggers in selecting events with emerging jets produced via the s-channel production of two dark quarks.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Efficiency of ML Anomaly Detection Triggers for Emerging Jets

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗