Search NASA⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search NASA

Results for “Nickel oxide”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 361 records · Page 20
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

Effect of pressure on high-temperature oxidation of Ni alloys in supercritical CO 2 containing impurities

Direct supercritical CO 2 (sCO 2 ) power cycles require structural materials compatible with hot sCO 2 containing high levels of water and oxygen impurities. Chromia-forming Ni-based superalloys, which are leading candidates at temperatures > 600 °C, have shown good compatibility in pure sCO 2 , however potential impurity effects are not well understood. In this report we exposed several commercial Ni-based alloys to 95%CO 2 -4%H 2 O-(1-3)%O 2 at 750 °C and 0.1 or 20 MPa for 2500 h. Protective chromia scales formed in all cases. Nevertheless, water vapor-assisted oxide volatilization clearly occurred at high pressure. The volatilization rates decreased with time, but still represent a potentially serious compatibility issue in real, high-velocity, sCO 2 systems.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Enhancing Oxygen Stability in Low-Cobalt Layered Oxide Cathode Materials by Three-Dimensional Targeted Doping

In this project, we propose to develop a new concept and a generic platform that can lead to the greatly enhanced stabilization of all high-energy cathode materials, and in particular high-nickel (Ni) and low-cobalt (Co) oxides. The new concept is a 3D doping technology that hierarchically combines surface and bulk doping. We will use surface doping to stabilize the surface of primary particles and also introduce dopants in the bulk to further enhance oxygen stability, conductivity, and structural stability in low-Co oxides under high voltage and deep discharging operating conditions. This new concept not only will deliver a low-cost, high-energy cathode but also will provide a generic method that can stabilize all high-energy cathodes. The proposed novel 3D doping approach is poised to resolve some longstanding challenges in fundamental doping effects on battery materials as well as to reduce Li-ion batteries’ cost and improve their safety, energy density, and lifetime. To tackle this problem, we have formed a highly complementary multi-university/national labs/industry team to enable a doping-central and systematic investigation of low-Co materials and create a knowledge base for many electrode materials to be used in advanced electric vehicles. The successful execution of the proposed project relies on five components that can be carried out by the complementary team members: (1) a theoretical investigation of the surface and bulk stabilizing dopants (Persson), (2) a precise synthesis of materials with targeted doping (Lin and Xin), (3) development of electrolytes for high-Ni low-Co oxides (Xu), (4) multi-scale characterization of the structures and their interfaces by scanning transmission electron microscopy (SEM) and synchrotron X-ray imaging and spectroscopy tools (Xin and Lin), and (5) pouch cell-level integration (Fan). The UCI-led project will enable a doping-central and systematic investigation of low-Co materials and create a knowledge base for many electrode materials to be used in advanced electric vehicles.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Dissolution zone model of the oxide structure in additively manufactured dispersion-strengthened alloys

The structural evolution of oxides in dispersion-strengthened superalloys during laser-powder bed fusion is considered in detail. Alloy chemistry and process parameter effects on oxide structure are assessed through a parameter study on the model alloy Ni-20Cr, doped with varying concentrations of Y 2 O 3 and Al. Small angle neutron scattering measurements of the dispersoid size distribution show the dispersoid size increases with higher laser power, slower scan speed, and increasing Y 2 O 3 and Al content. Complementary electron microscopy measurements reveal reactions between Y 2 O 3 and Al, even in nanoscale dispersoids, and the presence of micron-scale oxide slag inclusions in select specimens. A scaling analysis of mass and momentum transport within the melt pool, presented here, establishes that diffusional structural evolution mechanisms dominate for nanoscale dispersoids, while fluid forces and advection become significant for larger slag inclusions. These findings are developed into a theory of dispersoid structural evolution, integrating quantitative models of diffusional processes – dispersoid dissolution, nucleation, growth, coarsening – with a reduced order model of time-temperature trajectories of fluid parcels within the melt pool. Calculations of the dispersoid size in single-pass melting reveal a zone in the center of the melt track in which the oxide feedstock fully dissolves. Within this zone the final Y 2 O 3 size is independent of feedstock size and determined by nucleation and growth kinetics. If the dissolution zones of adjacent melt tracks overlap sufficiently with each other to dissolve large oxides, formed during printing or present in the powder feedstock, then the dispersoid structure throughout the build volume is homogeneous and matches that from a single pass within the dissolution zone. Gaps between adjacent dissolution zones result in oxide accumulation into larger slag inclusions. Predictions of final dispersoid size and slag formation using this dissolution zone model match the present experimental data and explain process-structure linkages speculated in the open literature.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Methane combustion over Ni/Ce x Zr 1-x O 2 catalysts: impact of ceria/zirconia ratio

In this work, a series of Ce x Zr 1–x O 2 (x=1, 0.83, 0.17, 0) supports and 2 wt.% Ni/Ce x Zr 1–x O 2 catalysts were synthesized and evaluated for CH 4 oxidation. The Ce x Zr 1–x O 2 supports showed moderate activity (T 50 =519-638°C) with CO by-product formation. Additionally, nickel incorporation onto Ce x Zr 1–x O 2 lowered the T 50 to 438–477°C and eliminated the formation of CO. The results indicated that moderate Zr doping improved the support oxygen storage capacity (OSC) and reducibility of the catalyst at low temperatures (H 2 -TPR) leading to an enhanced CH 4 combustion turnover frequency: Ni/ZrO 2 <Ni/Ce 0.17 Zr 0.83 O 2 <Ni/CeO 2 <Ni/Ce 0.83 Zr 0.17 O 2 . The apparent activation energies of Ni/Ce x Zr 1–x O 2 catalysts (87-92 kJ/mol) were much lower than the ones of Ce x Zr 1–x O 2 supports and Ni/quartz sand (111-120 kJ/mol) indicating that CH 4 oxidation is facilitated when Ni is deposited on Ce x Zr 1–x O 2 . Moreover, stability tests with H 2 O and CO 2 showed that Zr doping can improve the catalyst stability, while H 2 O had a stronger reversible inhibition effect than CO 2 for CH 4 combustion.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

Interaction of beryllium with 316H stainless steel in molten Li 2 BeF 4 (FLiBe)

The increased demand in renewable energy resources has led to a renewed interest in nuclear reactors including a new generation of molten salt reactors. One of the issues encountered in handling of molten chloride or fluoride salts is the inability of metals to form and retain a protective oxide surface layer, generally chromium oxide. The low chromium content, nickel-based alloy INOR-8, later marketed as Hastelloy N, was specifically developed to contain molten fluorides. This alloy had some deficiencies, but its composition resulted in it incurring far less chromium depletion by the molten fluoride salts than alloys like 316 stainless steel. For the next generation of molten salt reactors, an alloy with pressure vessel code approval and higher temperature capability than Hastelloy N is required. Consequently, several reactor designers have reportedly chosen to build the reactor containment vessel from 316H stainless steel. In order to minimize corrosion of the stainless steel by the molten fluoride salt (2LiF-BeF 2 ), it is proposed to add beryllium metal to the salt to react with impurities and provide a means to lower the oxidation potential thus making the salt less corrosive. Even so, there is a concern whether the beryllium would react with components of the stainless steel. To address this concern, static capsule tests were conducted in which selected amounts of beryllium were added to capsules containing 2LiF-BeF 2 (FLiBe) salt and 316H stainless steel and Hastelloy N samples. Following exposure, the samples were cleaned and examined using a variety of analysis techniques including, optical microscopy, SEM-EDS, XPS, LIBS, XRD and EPMA. Tensile samples were also exposed in capsules, and those were subjected to tensile testing. Notably, It was found that for the level of beryllium additions used in this study, intermetallic compounds were formed which could be detrimental to the long-term performance of the 316H stainless steel.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Nickelate Superconductivity without Rare‐Earth Magnetism: (La,Sr)NiO 2

Abstract The occurrence of unconventional superconductivity in cuprates has long motivated the search for manifestations in other layered transition metal oxides. Recently, superconductivity is found in infinite‐layer nickelate (Nd,Sr)NiO 2 and (Pr,Sr)NiO 2 thin films, formed by topotactic reduction from the perovskite precursor phase. A topic of much current interest is whether rare‐earth moments are essential for superconductivity in this system. In this study, it is found that with significant materials optimization, substantial portions of the La 1− x Sr x NiO 2 phase diagram can enter the regime of coherent low‐temperature transport ( x = 0.14 ‐ 0.20), with subsequent superconducting transitions and a maximum onset of ≈9 K at x = 0.20. Additionally, the unexpected indication of a superconducting ground state in undoped LaNiO 2 is observed, which likely reflects the self‐doped nature of the electronic structure. Combining the results of (La/Pr/Nd) 1− x Sr x NiO 2 reveals a generalized superconducting dome, characterized by systematic shifts in the unit cell volume and in the relative electron‐hole populations across the lanthanides.

Osada, Motoki↗
DOE OSTI2025

Examining Ni Coarsening in Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells by Characterizing NiH on Ni (111) Using a Combined Theoretical Approach

Ni coarsening in the fuel electrode of solid oxide cells (SOCs) is an important degradation mechanism. In this talk, density-functional theory and kinetic Monte Carlo methods are used to explore the hypothesis that the surface diffusion of NiH on Ni may promote Ni coarsening in the SOC operated in electrolysis cell mode. Using both methods and defining the diffusivity as the product of the surface coverage and single-molecule diffusivity, the diffusivity of NiH on Ni (111) is found to be sufficiently large under a significant overpotential to support the above hypothesis. Also, the time between the formation and dissociation of NiH on Ni (111) is predicted to be short at low coverages of H on Ni (111). Thus, significant progress is made toward developing a model of Ni coarsening considering both molecular and dissociated forms of NiH on Ni (111).

density functional theory (DFT)↗
DOE OSTI2025

Toward a Better Understanding of Ni Coarsening in Solid Oxide Cells: NiH on Ni (111) Examined Using a Combined Theoretical Approach

The coarsening of the Ni particles in the hydrogen electrode of solid oxide cells (SOCs) is an important degradation mechanism. Here, in this paper, density-functional theory and kinetic Monte Carlo methods are used to explore our recent hypothesis that the surface diffusion of NiH may cause faster Ni coarsening in electrolysis cell mode under an overpotential. Using both methods, the diffusion constant or diffusivity of NiH on Ni (111) is determined as the product of the surface coverage and single-molecule diffusivity for the first time considering all possible diffusion paths. It is then determined versus overpotential at the triple-phase boundary of the hydrogen electrode assuming a typical operating temperature of the SOC. Under a significant overpotential, the diffusivity of NiH is found to be sufficiently large to support the above hypothesis that NiH may promote Ni coarsening. However, based on the adsorption configurations identified, the dissociation and reformation of NiH on Ni (111) could occur. Thus, more work is needed to develop a model of Ni coarsening considering both molecular and dissociated forms of NiH.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2020

Substitution of Co with Ni in Co/Al 2 O 3 Catalysts for Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis

The effect of cobalt substitution with nickel was investigated for the Fischer–Tropsch synthesis reaction. Catalysts having different Ni/Co ratios were prepared by aqueous incipient wetness co-impregnation, characterized, and tested using a continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR) for more than 200 h. The addition of nickel did not significantly modify the morphological properties measured. XRD, STEM, and TPR-XANES results showed intimate contact between nickel and cobalt, strongly suggesting the formation of a Co-Ni solid oxide solution in each case. Moreover, TPR-XANES indicated that nickel addition improves the cobalt reducibility. This may be due to H 2 dissociation and spillover, but is more likely the results of a chemical effect of intimate contact between Co and Ni resulting in Co-Ni alloying after activation. FTS testing revealed a lower initial activity when nickel was added. However, CO conversion continuously increased with time on-stream until a steady-state value (34%–37% depending on Ni/Co ratio) was achieved, which was very close to the value observed for undoped Co/Al 2 O 3 . This trend suggests nickel can stabilize cobalt nanoparticles even at a lower weight percentage of Co. Currently, the cobalt price is 2.13 times the price of nickel. Thus, comparing the activity/price, the catalyst with a Ni/Co ratio of 25/75 has better performance than the unpromoted catalyst. Finally, nickel-promoted catalysts exhibited slightly higher initial selectivity for light hydrocarbons, but this difference typically diminished with time on-stream; once leveling off in conversion was achieved, the C 5+ selectivities were similar (≈ 80%) for Ni/Co ratios up to 10/90, and only slightly lower (≈ 77%) at Ni/Co of 25/75.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

Single-Crystalline Ni-Rich LiNi x Mn y Co 1– x – y O 2 Cathode Materials: A Perspective

To drive electrical vehicles for long-range, the energy density of Li-ion batteries must be further enhanced, which requires high-energy cathode materials. Among them, Ni-rich LiNi x Mn y Co 1–x–y O 2 (x > 0.5, NMC) is one of the most promising candidates. However, traditional poly-crystal (PC) NMC materials, whose particles are secondary clusters consisting of many primary crystalline particles, are susceptible to pulverization along the inter grain/particle boundaries, resulting in poor cycle stability. Recently, single crystal (SC)-NMC cathodes are proposed as they are believed to have several merits such as high structural integrity, lower interface with electrolyte, and potentially better energy storage performance. Nevertheless, several queries, such as the merits of SC structure and the mechanism for their structure degradation, are still controversial and required to be addressed. Here, in this study, the synthesis parameters, properties, energy storage as well as safety of SC- and PC-NMC cathodes with various Ni contents are critically reviewed, for clarifying the merits and drawbacks of SC. Furthermore, the study focuses on the recent advances of insight mechanisms and strategies for stabilizing the structure/interface by doping, morphology engineering, surface coating, and composition tailoring. The remaining challenges, safety concerns, and perspectives to enhance the electrochemical performance of SC-NMC cathodes for electric vehicle application are followed.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Carburization susceptibility of chromia-forming alloys in high-temperature CO 2

It is generally believed that when a chromia scale forms in high-temperature CO 2 environments, carbon uptake of alloys is nearly eliminated, thereby preventing carburization and associated degradation of properties. We quantitively assess this notion through careful examination of several chromia-forming Ni-based and Fe-based commercial alloys after long-term (10,000-h) exposures to CO 2 and air at 700°C. Here, small but measurable carbon uptake ensued independent of alloy base metal (Ni/Fe), alloy crystal structure (FCC/BCC), and chromia growth rate. The rate for Ni-based alloys was strongly dependent on Si and Mn content, highlighting the need to understand possible long-term effects on mechanical properties.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Nickel-rich, volatile depleted iron meteorites: Relationships and formation processes

Ungrouped iron meteorites Tishomingo, Willow Grove, and Chinga, and group IVB iron meteorites, are Ni-rich. Similarities include enrichments of 10–100 × CI for some refractory siderophile elements, and equivalent depletions in more volatile siderophile elements. Superimposed on the overall enrichment/depletion trend, certain siderophile elements (P, W, Fe, Mo) are depleted relative to elements of similar volatility. All three ungrouped irons derive from parent bodies formed in the early Solar System. Willow Grove and Chinga are characterized by cosmic ray exposure corrected 182 W/ 184 W consistent with metal-silicate segregation on their parent bodies within 1–3 Myr of Solar System formation, within the age range determined for segregation of magmatic iron meteorite parent bodies, including group IVB irons. Tishomingo is characterized by a younger model age 4–5 Myr subsequent to Solar System formation, reflecting either late stage melting resulting from 26 Al decay, or an impact resetting. The discovery of stishovite in Tishomingo, indicating exposure to a minimum shock pressure of 8–9 GPa, is consistent with the latter. Stishovite in Tishomingo and chromite included in troilite-daubréelite in IVB irons allows oxygen isotopic composition comparison between these meteorites. Different mass independent oxygen isotopic compositions of IVB irons and Tishomingo indicate genetically distinct parent bodies. By contrast, mass independent Mo isotopic compositions overlap within analytical uncertainties, indicating a similar, carbonaceous chondrite (CC) type genetic heritage. Molybdenum and 183 W isotopic data for Chinga and Willow Grove indicate derivation from CC type parent bodies. Willow Grove shares Mo and 183 W isotopic compositions with the Ni-rich South Byron Trio (SBT) grouplet and the Milton pallasite. These Ni-rich meteorites likely formed in the same general nebular environment as other CC planetesimals, likely the outer Solar System. Highly siderophile element (HSE) abundances of Willow Grove and Tishomingo are similar to some IVB meteorites, consistent with formation by moderate degrees of fractional crystallization from initial metallic melts with low S and P, and modestly fractionated HSE. The comparable HSE abundances of Tishomingo and Willow Grove to some IVB irons, yet substantially higher Ni concentrations, indicate formation on parent bodies with lower bulk HSE abundances or HSE concentration in proportionally smaller volumes of metal. HSE abundances in Chinga are considerably lower than in IVB irons, highly fractionated, and processes responsible for these remain elusive. For IVB irons and these ungrouped irons, high temperature condensation likely dominated the enrichment and depletion of the refractory and volatile siderophile elements, respectively. Parent body degassing may have also played a role. Relative depletion of volatile siderophile elements is not, however, a universal feature of high-Ni meteorites. The SBT and Milton pallasite are Ni-rich, but less depleted in the more volatile siderophile elements. Nickel enrichment was likely driven by oxidation of Fe metal during parent body accretion or core segregation. Oxidation of the Tishomingo and Willow Grove parent bodies may have occurred at ~ IW + 1, indicated by relative Mo and W depletions due to metal/water reaction during differentiation. Late-stage reduction, indicated by the presence of Cr-bearing sulfides in Tishomingo and IVB irons, may have resulted from exhaustion of the oxidant.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Tetrahedral Zn 2+ doping LiNi 0.6 Mn 0.2 Co 0.2 O 2 improves discharge capacity retention by altering surface Ni valence during cycling and preventing oxygen evolution

5 mol-% Zn 2+ was added to the co-precipitation synthesis of LiNi 0.6 Mn 0.2 Co 0.2 O 2 (NMC622) to understand Zn's effect on the structural and electronic properties of NMC622. Zn is determined to successfully dope into the NMC crystal lattice as there is an increase in d-spacing along the [003], [104], and [110] directions and an increase in molar volume (100.75 cm 3 mol -1 for NMC622 and 101.00 cm 3 mol -1 for Zn-NMC). Through XPS, Zn is determined to dope on the tetrahedral 6c Wyckoff site in the NMC structure and TEM-EDS reveals that despite a slight ZnO impurity phase, 1.4 mol-% Zn successfully dopes into the crystal structure. Furthermore, cyclic voltammetry shows a suppressed anodic wave associated with oxygen evolution and EIS demonstrates that Zn-doped NMC decreases charge transfer resistance and increases Li diffusion by an order of magnitude. After the formation cycles, NMC has a higher 1 C accessible capacity, 141 mAh/g, over Zn-NMC (132 mAh/g), but after long term cycling Zn-NMC has a higher accessible capacity (117 mAh/g compared to 96 mAh/g for NMC) and increases discharge capacity retention by 18% leading to longer cycle life.

Electrochemistry↗
DOE OSTI2025

Controlling the Ru Island Decoration on Ni Nanoparticles to Tune the Activity for 5-Hydroxylmethylfurfural (HMF) Oxidation

Controlling the island decoration on metal nanoparticle supports is a major opportunity for improving the catalytic activity and an attractive synthetic challenge. The structure of the decorating metal determines how it interacts with the metal support and how it effectively catalyzes the reactants and the intermediates. In this work, we demonstrate that a slow-growth method maximizes the formation of Ru islands on faceted, branched Ni nanoparticles, thereby controlling the number of Ru–Ni atomic interactions and improving the catalytic activity. The Ru islands on branched Ni nanoparticles with the highest loading of Ru (9%) exhibited the highest activity for the electro-oxidation of biomass-derived 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF). In conclusion, these results demonstrate the ability to synthetically control the second metal decoration to tune metal–support interactions, thereby enhancing the catalytic activity.

5-hydroxymethylfurfural↗
DOE OSTI2024

Electro-Chemo-Mechanical Evolution at the Garnet Solid Electrolyte–Cathode Interface

Solid-state batteries promise higher energy density and improved safety compared with lithium-ion batteries. However, electro-chemomechanical instabilities at the solid electrolyte interface with the cathode and the anode hinder their large scale implementation. Here, in this study, we focus on resolving electro-chemo-mechanical instability mechanisms and their onset conditions between a state-of-the-art cathode, LiNi 0.6 Mn 0.2 Co 0.2 O 2 (NMC622), and the garnet Li 7 La 3 Zr 2 O 12 (LLZO) solid electrolyte. We used thin-film NMC622 on LLZO pellets to place the interfacial region within the detection depth of the X-ray characterization techniques. The experimental probes of the near-interface region included in operando X-ray absorption spectroscopy and ex situ focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy. Electrochemical degradation was not observable during cycling at room temperature with 4.3 V versus Li/Li + charge voltage cutoff, or with stepwise potentiostatic hold up to 4.1 V versus Li/Li + . In contrast, secondary phases including reduced transition metal species (Ni 2+ , Co 2+ ) were found after cycling up to 4.3 V versus Li/Li + at 80 °C and during potentiostatic hold at 4.3 V versus Li/Li + (Ni 2+ ). Intergranular cracks between NMC622 grains and delamination at the NMC622|LLZO interface occurred readily after the first charge. These interface reaction products and mechanical failure lowered the capacity and cell efficiency due to partial loss of the NMC622 phase, partial loss of contact at the interface, and a higher polarization resistance. Electrochemical instability between delithiated NMC622 and LLZO could be mitigated by using a low charge voltage cutoff or cycling at lower temperature. Ways to engineer the mechanical properties to avoid crack deflection and delamination at the interface are also discussed for enhancing mechanical stability.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Topotaxially grown composite cathodes for cobalt-free high-energy long-life Li-ion batteries

The vehicle industry’s increasing demand for electrification necessitates the removal of expensive and rare cobalt from current high-energy batteries. However, eliminating cobalt poses challenges due to its vital role in maintaining the layered structural ordering and cycling stability of commonly used Li(NiMnCo)O 2 cathodes. As an alternative to conventional layered oxide designs, we report a lithium nickelate cathode with a composite structure comprising major stoichiometric layered and minor rocksalt phases within the same oxygen lattice. This material outperforms conventional designs by maintaining stable battery operation at voltages up to 4.8 V vs. Li|Li + , with 88% capacity retention after 1000 cycles at 2C. The topotaxial-growth-enabled interlock between the two components mitigates chemo-mechanical degradation, offering a promising pathway to cobalt-free cathodes. Additionally, we reveal a miscibility gap in the Li-Ni-O system that enables kinetic adjustment of composition and structure during sintering, thereby tuning the functionality of high-energy cathodes.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

LiNi 0.8 Fe 0.1 Al 0.1 O 2 as a Cobalt-Free Cathode Material with High Capacity and High Capability for Lithium-Ion Batteries

Obtaining cathode materials with high capacity and cycle stability is one of the main challenges regarding the success of electric vehicle technologies. However, most of the widely used materials with these properties involve the use of toxic and expensive cobalt as the active material. To overcome this challenge, this work proposes a novel cobalt-free cathode material, synthesized for the first time using a solid-state reaction, whose general formula is LiNi 0.8 Fe 0.1 Al 0.1 O 2 (NFA). This class of materials offers high capacity and reduces the battery costs by removing cobalt, without jeopardizing the structural stability and safety of the NFAs. The morphology and the structural properties of the obtained NFA cathode material were characterized using different techniques, e.g., scanning electronic microscopy, X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence, and infrared and Raman spectroscopies. The electrochemical activity and diffusivity of the Li-ion during lithium removal and its insertion into the bulk of the NFA cathode demonstrated high-yield specific capacities of ≈180 mAh g –1 at 0.1C, along with a reasonable rate capability and cycling stability, with a capacity retention of ≈99.6% after 100 charge/discharge cycles at a rate of C/2, and whose operando X-ray diffraction experiments have been used to study the crystallographic transitions during the lithiation–delithiation reaction.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗