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NASA NTRS2002

Remote Sensing Information Science Research

This document is the final report summarizing research conducted by the Remote Sensing Research Unit, Department of Geography, University of California, Santa Barbara under National Aeronautics and Space Administration Research Grant NAG5-10457. This document describes work performed during the period of 1 March 2001 thorough 30 September 2002. This report includes a survey of research proposed and performed within RSRU and the UCSB Geography Department during the past 25 years. A broad suite of RSRU research conducted under NAG5-10457 is also described under themes of Applied Research Activities and Information Science Research. This research includes: 1. NASA ESA Research Grant Performance Metrics Reporting. 2. Global Data Set Thematic Accuracy Analysis. 3. ISCGM/Global Map Project Support. 4. Cooperative International Activities. 5. User Model Study of Global Environmental Data Sets. 6. Global Spatial Data Infrastructure. 7. CIESIN Collaboration. 8. On the Value of Coordinating Landsat Operations. 10. The California Marine Protected Areas Database: Compilation and Accuracy Issues. 11. Assessing Landslide Hazard Over a 130-Year Period for La Conchita, California Remote Sensing and Spatial Metrics for Applied Urban Area Analysis, including: (1) IKONOS Data Processing for Urban Analysis. (2) Image Segmentation and Object Oriented Classification. (3) Spectral Properties of Urban Materials. (4) Spatial Scale in Urban Mapping. (5) Variable Scale Spatial and Temporal Urban Growth Signatures. (6) Interpretation and Verification of SLEUTH Modeling Results. (7) Spatial Land Cover Pattern Analysis for Representing Urban Land Use and Socioeconomic Structures. 12. Colorado River Flood Plain Remote Sensing Study Support. 13. African Rainfall Modeling and Assessment. 14. Remote Sensing and GIS Integration.

Clarke, Keith C.↗
NASA NTRS2003

Fractals and Spatial Methods for Mining Remote Sensing Imagery

The rapid increase in digital remote sensing and GIS data raises a critical problem -- how can such an enormous amount of data be handled and analyzed so that useful information can be derived quickly? Efficient handling and analysis of large spatial data sets is central to environmental research, particularly in global change studies that employ time series. Advances in large-scale environmental monitoring and modeling require not only high-quality data, but also reliable tools to analyze the various types of data. A major difficulty facing geographers and environmental scientists in environmental assessment and monitoring is that spatial analytical tools are not easily accessible. Although many spatial techniques have been described recently in the literature, they are typically presented in an analytical form and are difficult to transform to a numerical algorithm. Moreover, these spatial techniques are not necessarily designed for remote sensing and GIS applications, and research must be conducted to examine their applicability and effectiveness in different types of environmental applications. This poses a chicken-and-egg problem: on one hand we need more research to examine the usability of the newer techniques and tools, yet on the other hand, this type of research is difficult to conduct if the tools to be explored are not accessible. Another problem that is fundamental to environmental research are issues related to spatial scale. The scale issue is especially acute in the context of global change studies because of the need to integrate remote-sensing and other spatial data that are collected at different scales and resolutions. Extrapolation of results across broad spatial scales remains the most difficult problem in global environmental research. There is a need for basic characterization of the effects of scale on image data, and the techniques used to measure these effects must be developed and implemented to allow for a multiple scale assessment of the data before any useful process-oriented modeling involving scale-dependent data can be conducted. Through the support of research grants from NASA, we have developed a software module called ICAMS (Image Characterization And Modeling System) to address the need to develop innovative spatial techniques and make them available to the broader scientific communities. ICAMS provides new spatial techniques, such as fractal analysis, geostatistical functions, and multiscale analysis that are not easily available in commercial GIS/image processing software. By bundling newer spatial methods in a user-friendly software module, researchers can begin to test and experiment with the new spatial analysis methods and they can gauge scale effects using a variety of remote sensing imagery. In the following, we describe briefly the development of ICAMS and present application examples.

Lam, Nina↗
NASA NTRS2003

Aerial and Ground-Based Remote Sensing In Central America

Remote sensing of archaeological features is most successful when instrumentation and imagery are carefully selected bearing in mind the nature of the remains and the local context. Instruments need to be calibrated to local conditions, and extensive field verification studies are necessary. This is illustrated by remote sensing in two research programs in Central America: the Arena1 Research Program in Costa Rica and the Ceren Research Program in El Salvador. Satellite and aircraft remote sensing was successful in the former, while the Ceren site required the development of ground-based geophysical exploration techniques. In both cases, remote sensing contributed information that was not available by any other means, thus allowing new interpretations and a fuller understanding of ancient societies.

Sheets, Payson↗
NASA NTRS2002

Achievements of the DOT-NASA Joint Program on Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Technologies: Application to Multimodal Transportation

This report presents three-year accomplishments from the national program on Commercial Remote Sensing and Geospatial Technology (CRSGT) application to transportation, administered by the U.S. Department of Transportation (U.S. DOT) in collaboration with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The joint program was authorized under Section 5113 of the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21). This is the first national program of its type focusing on transportation applications of emerging commercial remote sensing technologies. U.S. DOT's Research and Special Programs Administration manages the program in coordination with NASA's Earth Science Enterprise's application programs. The program focuses on applications of CRSGT products and systems for providing smarter and more efficient transportation operations and services. The program is performed in partnership with four major National Consortia for Remote Sensing in Transportation (NCRST). Each consortium focuses on research and development of products in one of the four priority areas for transportation application, and includes technical application and demonstration projects carried out in partnership with industries and service providers in their respective areas. The report identifies products and accomplishments from each of the four consortia in meeting the goal of providing smarter and more efficient transportation services. The products and results emerging from the program are being implemented in transportation operations and services through state and local agencies. The Environmental Assessment and Application Consortium (NCRST-E) provides leadership for developing and deploying cost effective environmental and transportation planning services, and integrates CRSGT advances for achieving smarter and cost effective corridor planning. The Infrastructure Management Consortium (NCRST-I) provides leadership in technologies that achieve smarter and cheaper ways of managing transportation infrastructure assets, operation, and inspection, and integrates CRSGT advances for achieving infrastructure security. The Traffic Flow Consortium (NCRST-F) provides leadership to develop new tools for regional traffic flow management including heavy vehicles and intermodal flow of freight, and integrates CRSGT advances for complementing and extending the reach of ITS user services. The Safety, Hazards and Disasters (NCRST-H) provides leadership for deploying remote sensing technology to locate transportation hazards and improve disaster recovery, and integrates CRSGT advances for application to protect transportation systems from terrorism. The DOT-NASA team is proud to present this report of accomplishments on products and results emerging from the joint program for application to transportation practice.

Source record↗
NASA NTRS2004

Remote Operations and Ground Control Centers

The Payload Operations Integration Center at the Marshall Space Flight Center supports the International Space Station (ISS) through remote interfaces around the world. The POI$ was originally designed as a gateway to space for remote facilities; ranging from an individual user to a fullscale multi-user environment. This achievement was accomplished while meeting program requirements and accommodating the injection of modem technology on an ongoing basis to ensure cost operations. This paper will discuss the open POIC architecture developed to support similar and dissimilar remote operations centers. It will include technologies, protocols, and compromises which on a day to day basis support ongoing operations. Additional areas covered include centralized management of shared resources and methods utilized to provide highly available and restricted resources to remote users. Finally, the effort of coordinating the actions of participants will be discussed.

Bryant, Barry S.↗
NASA NTRS2004

Remote Operations and Ground Control Centers

The Payload Operations Integration Center (POIC) at the Marshall Space Flight Center supports the International Space Station (ISS) through remote interfaces around the world. The POIC was originally designed as a gateway to space for remote facilities; ranging from an individual user to a full-scale multiuser environment. This achievement was accomplished while meeting program requirements and accommodating the injection of modern technology on an ongoing basis to ensure cost effective operations. This paper will discuss the open POIC architecture developed to support similar and dissimilar remote operations centers. It will include technologies, protocols, and compromises which on a day to day basis support ongoing operations. Additional areas covered include centralized management of shared resources and methods utilized to provide highly available and restricted resources to remote users. Finally, the effort of coordinating the actions of participants will be discussed.

Bryant, Barry S.↗
NASA NTRS2000

Remote sensing and human health: new sensors and new opportunities

Since the launch of Landsat-1 28 years ago, remotely sensed data have been used to map features on the earth's surface. An increasing number of health studies have used remotely sensed data for monitoring, surveillance, or risk mapping, particularly of vector-borne diseases. Nearly all studies used data from Landsat, the French Systeme Pour l'Observation de la Terre, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer. New sensor systems are in orbit, or soon to be launched, whose data may prove useful for characterizing and monitoring the spatial and temporal patterns of infectious diseases. Increased computing power and spatial modeling capabilities of geographic information systems could extend the use of remote sensing beyond the research community into operational disease surveillance and control. This article illustrates how remotely sensed data have been used in health applications and assesses earth-observing satellites that could detect and map environmental variables related to the distribution of vector-borne and other diseases.

Satellite Communications↗
NASA NTRS2004

Malaria Modeling using Remote Sensing and GIS Technologies

Malaria has been with the human race since the ancient time. In spite of the advances of biomedical research and the completion of genomic mapping of Plasmodium falciparum, the exact mechanisms of how the various strains of parasites evade the human immune system and how they have adapted and become resistant to multiple drugs remain elusive. Perhaps because of these reasons, effective vaccines against malaria are still not available. Worldwide, approximately one to three millions deaths are attributed to malaria annually. With the increased availability of remotely sensed data, researchers in medical entomology, epidemiology and ecology have started to associate environmental and ecological variables with malaria transmission. In several studies, it has been shown that transmission correlates well with certain environmental and ecological parameters, and that remote sensing can be used to measure these determinants. In a NASA project, we have taken a holistic approach to examine how remote sensing and GIs can contribute to vector and malaria controls. To gain a better understanding of the interactions among the possible promoting factors, we have been developing a habitat model, a transmission model, and a risk prediction model, all using remote sensing data as input. Our objectives are: 1) To identify the potential breeding sites of major vector species and the locations for larvicide and insecticide applications in order to reduce costs, lessen the chance of developing pesticide resistance, and minimize the damage to the environment; 2) To develop a malaria transmission model characterizing the interactions among hosts, vectors, parasites, landcover and environment in order to identify the key factors that sustain or intensify malaria transmission, and 3) To develop a risk model to predict the occurrence of malaria and its transmission intensity using epidemiological data and satellite-derived or ground-measured environmental and meteorological data.

Kiang, Richard↗
NASA NTRS2005

NASA Icing Remote Sensing System Comparisons From AIRS II

NASA has an on-going activity to develop remote sensing technologies for the detection and measurement of icing conditions aloft. A multiple instrument approach is the current emphasis of this activity. Utilizing radar, radiometry, and lidar, a region of supercooled liquid is identified. If the liquid water content (LWC) is sufficiently high, then the region of supercooled liquid cloud is flagged as being an aviation hazard. The instruments utilized for the current effort are an X-band vertical staring radar, a radiometer that measures twelve frequencies between 22 and 59 GHz, and a lidar ceilometer. The radar data determine cloud boundaries, the radiometer determines the sub-freezing temperature heights and total liquid water content, and the ceilometer refines the lower cloud boundary. Data is post-processed with a LabVIEW program with a resultant supercooled LWC profile and aircraft hazard identification. Individual remotely sensed measurements gathered during the 2003-2004 Alliance Icing Research Study (AIRS II) were compared to aircraft in-situ measurements. Comparisons between the remote sensing system s fused icing product and in-situ measurements from the research aircraft are reviewed here. While there are areas where improvement can be made, the cases examined indicate that the fused sensor remote sensing technique appears to be a valid approach.

Reehorst, Andrew L.↗
NASA NTRS2005

GPS Remote Sensing Measurements Using Aerosonde UAV

In February 2004, a NASA-Langley GPS Remote Sensor (GPSRS) unit was flown on an Aerosonde unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) from the Wallops Flight Facility (WFF) in Virginia. Using direct and surface-reflected 1.575 GHz coarse acquisition (C/A) coded GPS signals, remote sensing measurements were obtained over land and portions of open water. The strength of the surface-reflected GPS signal is proportional to the amount of moisture in the surface, and is also influenced by surface roughness. Amplitude and other characteristics of the reflected signal allow an estimate of wind speed over open water. In this paper we provide a synopsis of the instrument accommodation requirements, installation procedures, and preliminary results from what is likely the first-ever flight of a GPS remote sensing instrument on a UAV. The correct operation of the GPSRS unit on this flight indicates that Aerosonde-like UAV's can serve as platforms for future GPS remote sensing science missions.

Grant, Michael S.↗
NASA NTRS2006

REMOTE RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY OF VARIOUS MIXED AND COMPOSITE MINERAL PHASES AT 7.2 m DISTANCE

Remote Raman [e.g.,1-5] and micro-Raman spectroscopy [e.g., 6-10] are being evaluated on geological samples for their potential applications on Mars rover or lander. The Raman lines of minerals are sharp and distinct. The Raman finger-prints of minerals do not shift appreciably but remain distinct even in sub-micron grains and, therefore, can be used for mineral identification in fine-grained rocks [e.g., 4,7]. In this work we have evaluated the capability of a directly coupled remote Raman system (co-axial configuration) for distinguishing the mineralogy of multiple crystals in the exciting laser beam. We have measured the Raman spectra of minerals in the near vicinity of each other and excited with a laser beam (e.g. -quartz (Qz) and K-feldspar (Feld) plates, each 5 mm thick). The spectra of composite transparent mineral plates of 5 mm thickness of -quartz and gypsum over calcite crystal were measured with the composite samples perpendicular to the exciting laser beam. The measurements of remote Raman spectra of various bulk minerals, and mixed and composite minerals with our portable UH remote Raman system were carried out at the Langley Research Center in a fully illuminated laboratory.

Sharma, S. K.↗
NASA NTRS2005

JSC Pharmacy Services for Remote Operations

The Johnson Space Center Pharmacy began operating in March of 2003. The pharmacy serves in two main capacities: to directly provide medications and services in support of the medical clinics at the Johnson Space Center, physician travel kits for NASA flight surgeon staff, and remote operations, such as the clinics in Devon Island, Star City and Moscow; and indirectly provide medications and services for the International Space Station and Space Shuttle medical kits. Process changes that occurred and continued to evolve in the advent of the installation of the new JSC Pharmacy, and the process of stocking medications for each of these aforementioned areas will be discussed. Methods: The incorporation of pharmacy involvement to provide services for remote operations and supplying medical kits was evaluated. The first step was to review the current processes and work the JSC Pharmacy into the existing system. The second step was to provide medications to these areas. Considerations for the timeline of expiring medications for shipment are reviewed with each request. The third step was the development of a process to provide accountability for the medications. Results: The JSC Pharmacy utilizes a pharmacy management system to document all medications leaving the pharmacy. Challenges inherent to providing medications to remote areas were encountered. A process has been designed to incorporate usage into the electronic medical record upon return of the information from these remote areas. This is an evolving program and several areas have been identified for further improvement.

Stoner, Paul S.↗
NASA NTRS2005

Mapping Weathering and Alteration Minerals in the Comstock and Geiger Grade Areas using Visible to Thermal Infrared Airborne Remote Sensing Data

To support research into both precious metal exploration and environmental site characterization a combination of high spatial/spectral resolution airborne visible, near infrared, short wave infrared (VNIR/SWIR) and thermal infrared (TIR) image data were acquired to remotely map hydrothermal alteration minerals around the Geiger Grade and Comstock alteration regions, and map the mineral by-products of weathered mine dumps in Virginia City. Remote sensing data from the Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS), SpecTIR Corporation's airborne hyperspectral imager (HyperSpecTIR), the MODIS-ASTER airborne simulator (MASTER), and the Spatially Enhanced Broadband Array Spectrograph System (SEBASS) were acquired and processed into mineral maps based on the unique spectral signatures of image pixels. VNIR/SWIR and TIR field spectrometer data were collected for both calibration and validation of the remote data sets, and field sampling, laboratory spectral analyses and XRD analyses were made to corroborate the surface mineralogy identified by spectroscopy. The resulting mineral maps show the spatial distribution of several important alteration minerals around each study area including alunite, quartz, pyrophyllite, kaolinite, montmorillonite/muscovite, and chlorite. In the Comstock region the mineral maps show acid-sulfate alteration, widespread propylitic alteration and extensive faulting that offsets the acid-sulfate areas, in contrast to the larger, dominantly acid-sulfate alteration exposed along Geiger Grade. Also, different mineral zones within the intense acid-sulfate areas were mapped. In the Virginia City historic mining district the important weathering minerals mapped include hematite, goethite, jarosite and hydrous sulfate minerals (hexahydrite, alunogen and gypsum) located on mine dumps. Sulfate minerals indicate acidic water forming in the mine dump environment. While there is not an immediate threat to the community, there are clearly sources of acidic drainage that were identified remotely.

imaging spectroscopy↗
NASA NTRS2007

Remote and Ground Truth Spectral Measurement Comparisons

FORMOSAT III are a set of six research satellites from Taiwan that were launched in April 2006. The satellites are in 800 km, 71 degree inclination orbits and separated by 24 degrees in ascending node. Ground truth spectral measurements were taken of outer surface materials on FORMOSAT III. From those measurements, a computer model was built to predict the spectral reflectance, which included phase angle and orientation of the spacecraft relative to the observer. However, materials exposed to the space environment have exhibited spectral changes including a darkening and a reddening of the spectra. This reddening was seen as an increase in slope of the reflectance as the wavelength increases. Therefore, the model of pristine materials was augmented to include the space weathering effects. Remote data were collected on two of the six FORMOSAT satellites using the 1.6 meter telescope at AMOS (Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing) site with the Spica spectrometer. Due to the separation in ascending node, observations were made on whichever one of the six satellites was visible on that specific night. Three nights of data were collected using the red (6000 9500 angstroms) filter and two nights of data were collected using the blue (3200 -6600 angstroms) filter. A comparison of the data showed a good match to the pristine model for the blue filter region. The absorption feature near 5500 angstroms due to the copper colored Kapton multi-layer insulation (MLI) was very apparent in the remote samples and a good fit to the data was seen in both satellites observed. The features in the red filter regime agreed with the pristine model up through 7000 angstroms where the reddening begins and the slope of the remote sample increases. A comparison of the two satellites showed similar features in the red and blue filter regions, i.e. the satellites were aging at the same rate. A comparison of the pristine model to the first month of remote measurements showed the amount by which the satellite had reddened. This information was used in the space weathered model to predict the second month s reflectance measurement. The results showed that the reddening did not increase from the first month of observations to the second. A third month of data will be necessary to determine if the reddening occurs instantly and then stabilizes with time or if the effect continues to increase with time.

Abercromby, Kira Jorgensen↗
NASA NTRS2007

Remote and Ground Truth Spectral Measurement Comparisons of FORMOSAT III

FORMOSAT III are a set of six research satellites from Taiwan that were launched in April 2006. The satellites are in 800 km, 71 degree inclination orbits and separated by 24 degrees in ascending node. Laboratory spectral measurements were taken of outer surface materials on FORMOSAT III. From those measurements, a computer model was built to predict the spectral reflectance accounting for both solar phase angle and orientation of the spacecraft relative to the observer. However, materials exposed to the space environment have exhibited spectral changes including a darkening and a "reddening" of the spectra. This "reddening" is characterized by an increase in slope of the reflectance as the wavelength increases. Therefore, the model of pre-flight materials was augmented to include the presumed causative agent: space weathering effects. Remote data were collected on two of the six FORMOSAT satellites using the 1.6 meter telescope at the AMOS (Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing) site with the Spica spectrometer. Due to the separation in ascending node, observations were acquired of whichever one of the six satellites was visible on that specific night. Three nights of data were collected using the red (6000 - 9500 angstroms) filter and five nights of data were collected using the blue (3200 - 6600 angstroms) filter. A comparison of the data showed a good match to the pre-flight models for the blue filter region. The absorption feature near 5500 angstroms due to the copper colored Kapton multi-layer insulation (MLI) was very apparent in the remote samples and a good fit to the data was seen in all satellites observed. The features in the red filter regime agreed with the pre-flight model up through 7000 angstroms where the reddening begins and the slope of the remote sample increases. A comparison of the satellites showed similar features in the red and blue filter regions, i.e. the satellite surfaces were aging at the same rate. A comparison of the pre-flight model to the first month of remote measurements showed the amount by which the satellite had reddened. The second month of data observed a satellite at a higher altitude and was therefore, not compared to the first month. A third month of data was collected but of satellites at the lower altitude regime and can only be compared to the first month. One cause of the reddening that was ruled out in early papers was a possible calibration issue.

Abercromby, Kira Jorgensen↗
NASA NTRS2007

Future of Land Remote Sensing: What is Needed

A viewgraph presentation describing the future of land remote sensing and the new technologies needed for clear views of the Earth is shown. The contents include: 1) Viewing the Earth; 2) Multi-Imagery; 3) May Missions and Sensors; 4) What is Needed; 5) Things to Think About; 6) Global Land Remote Sensing in Landsat 7 Era; 7) Seasonality; 8) Cloud Contamination; 9) NRC Decadal Study; 10) Atmospheric Attenuation; 11) Geo-Registration; 12) Orthorectification Required; 13) Band Registration with OLI; and 14) Things to Do. A viewgraph presentation describing the future of land remote sensing and the new technologies needed for clear views of the Earth is shown. The contents include: 1) Viewing the Earth; 2) Multi-Imagery; 3) May Missions and Sensors; 4) What is Needed; 5) Things to Think About; 6) Global Land Remote Sensing in Landsat 7 Era; 7) Seasonality; 8) Cloud Contamination; 9) NRC Decadal Study; 10) Atmospheric Attenuation; 11) Geo-Registration; 12) Orthorectification Required; 13) Band Registration with OLI; and 14) Things to Do.

Goward, Samuel N.↗
NASA NTRS2006

Introduction to the Special Session on Thermal Remote Sensing Data for Earth Science Research: The Critical Need for Continued Data Collection and Development of Future Thermal Satellite Sensors

There is a rich and long history of thermal infrared (TIR) remote sensing data for multidisciplinary Earth science research. The continuity of TIR data collection, however, is now in jeopardy given there are no planned future Earth observing TIR remote sensing satellite systems with moderately high spatial resolutions to replace those currently in orbit on NASA's Terra suite of sensors. This session will convene researchers who have actively worked in the field of TIR remote sensing to present results that elucidate the importance of thermal remote sensing to the wider Earth science research community. Additionally, this session will also exist as a forum for presenting concepts and ideas for new thermal sensing systems with high spatial resolutions for future Earth science satellite missions, as opposed to planned systems such as the Visible/Infrared Imager/Radiometer (VIIRS) suite of sensors on the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) that will collect TIR data at very coarse ~~~iairesolutions.

Quattrochi, Dale a.↗
NASA NTRS2008

Famine Early Warning Systems and Remote Sensing Data

This book describes the interdisciplinary work of USAID's Famine Early Warning System Network (FEWS NET) and its influence on how food security crises are identified, documented and the kind of responses that result. The book describes FEWS NET's systems and methods for using satellite remote sensing to identify and describe how biophysical hazards impact the lives and livelihoods of the population where they occur. It presents several illustrative case studies that will demonstrate the integration of both physical and social science disciplines in its work. FEWS NET s operational needs have driven science in biophysical remote sensing applications through its collaboration with the US Geological Survey, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, and US Department of Agriculture, as well as methodologies in the social science domain through its support of the US Agency for International Development, UNWorld Food Program and numerous international non-governmental organizations such as Save the Children, Oxfam and others. Because FEWS NET is an organization that must provide a global picture of food insecurity to decision makers, the information it relies on are by necessity observable and able to be documented. Thus many aspects of traditional livelihood analysis, for example, cannot be used by FEWS NET as they rely upon relationships, and ways of expressing power and knowledge at the local scale that cannot be easily scaled up to express variations in access to food at a community level. The book focuses on the ways that remote sensing information is transformed into an understanding of the actions that must be taken in order to ensure that lives and livelihoods are protected, including describing the remote sensing observations and models needed to identify hazards and the information gathering requirements and analytical frameworks needed to understand their impact. Its focus is primarily analysis conducted in Africa, but also touches upon FEWS NET s work in Central America, Haiti and Afghanistan. As an organization that seeks to integrate social and physical science methodologies and strategies into its work on a daily basis, it is a fascinating and rich example of interdisciplinary knowledge generation and innovation.

Brown, Molly E.↗