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DOE OSTI2020

An integrated process for butanol production from cellulosic biomass and CO 2 using engineered clostridia in a linear immobilized bioreactor

Engineered platforms using mixed microbial consortia to consolidate multiple reaction steps and perform disparate conversions simultaneously can substantially enhance the carbon efficiency of biomass conversion processes and lower the biofuel cost to an economically competitive level. In this project, an integrated process will be developed to produce n-butanol from cellulosic biomass and waste gas streams using two engineered clostridial strains, one butanol-tolerant solventogenic strain and one carboxydotrophic acetogen, co-immobilized in a “Linear Immobilized Bioreactor” (LIBR). The CO 2 and H 2 produced by the solventogenic strain will be used by the carboxydotrophic strain to produce acetate (and butyrate) that in turns can be used by the solventogenic strain to produce more butanol. Such a co-cultured fermentation has the potential to increase butanol production from biomass hydrolysate sugars by up to 50% with 100% reduction in CO 2 emission. Butanol produced in the fermentation will be stripped by the rising bubbles of fermentation produced gases (CO 2 and H 2 ) in the LIBR and separated via a condenser, alleviating butanol inhibition while achieving continuous butanol production at a high productivity and product titer, which can reduce both water and energy consumptions by over 50% compared to conventional ethanol and ABE fermentation processes. Phase I study proved the new bioprocess concept and verified our hypothesis that the proposed LIBR and co-cultured fermentation can enhance the conversion of lignocellulosic sugars to butanol with higher butanol yield, productivity and titer, leading to reduced biobutanol cost to compete more favorably with bioethanol and fossil fuels. A prototype lab-scale LIBR for multiphase fermentation was constructed to investigate and demonstrate the technical feasibility and advantages of the LIBR for multiphase fermentation involving sugars and gaseous substrates. The LIBR will be optimized and evaluated for its economic feasibility for biobutanol production from lignocellulosic biomass and industrial waste gases in Phase II.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2021

2019 Energy Storage Pricing Survey

Since grid energy storage is still evolving rapidly, it is often difficult to obtain project specific capital costs for various energy storage technologies. This information is necessary to evaluate the profitability of the facility, as well as comparing different energy storage technology options. The goal of this report is to summarize energy storage capital costs that were obtained from industry pricing surveys. The methodology breaks down the cost of an energy storage system into the following component categories: the storage module; the balance of system; the power conversion system; the energy management system; and the engineering, procurement, and construction costs. By evaluating each of the different component costs separately, a synthetic system cost can be developed that provides internal pricing consistency between different project sizes using the same technology, as well as between different technologies that utilize similar components.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2021

Universal Utility Data Exchange (UUDEX) Phase 4 Demonstration Environment and Results

This report provides an overview of the environment used by the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) in the Universal Utility Data Exchange (UUDEX) Phase 4 demonstration, and description of the demonstrations performed in the environment. The UUDX Phase 4 demonstration took place on March 31, 2021, with representatives from PNNL and the two project sub-contractors, OATI and MITRE, performing the demonstration for members of the UUDEX Industry Advisory Board (IAB). The demonstration tasks were based on the previous Phase 3 demonstration but conducted in a multi-site environment. Additional demonstrations showed features that were developed since the Phase 3 demonstration. The development environment was constructed by PNNL programming staff using the previously developed UUDEX Functional Design, Protocol Design, and Workflow Design documents as a starting point. The environment was augmented with subject creation management and access control security data structures and workflows, and data exchange structure documents developed as part of Phase 3 and Phase 4.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗

DOE OSTI2023

An Evaluation of Three Dimensional Scene Reconstruction Tools for Safeguards Applications

Over the past 5 years, advances in digital imaging and image processing have enabled everyday computing hardware, such as that found on laptops and even phones, to easily create 3D models of scenes from a series of still images. This field is broadly known as photogrammetry. For safeguards applications, a safeguards inspector could evaluate a 3D model of a facility (such as an enrichment plant or the top of a reactor) constructed from multiple photos instead of reviewing each photo individually. This report compares the detailed capabilities of a particular commercial offering (Quidient) that Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) has investigated in depth with the general capabilities provided in the industry and recommends areas where the general technology could be pursued for potential safeguards applications.

98 NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT, SAFEGUARDS, AND PHYSICAL P↗

DOE OSTI2023

Hybrid Solar System (Final Scientific/Technical Report)

GTI Energy (GTI) teamed with the University of California at Merced (UCM) to scaleup the hybrid solar system (HSS) technology for demonstrating its performance at the US Gypsum (USG) plant in Plaster City, California. The technology integrates two-stage concentrating solar collector with matching particle thermal transport and storage (TSS) system to deliver cost-effective, and on-demand distributed high temperature industrial process heat up to 600°C with solar thermal, in this case to a gypsum kettle, to reduce its fuel use and carbon footprint. Current solar technologies, which reach these temperatures, are not distributable (towers) or cost-effective (dish). The research team developed a conceptual system design for host site retrofit, including preliminary heat balance, process flow diagram, particle to process heat exchanger and equipment placements at the site. Subsequently, parallel efforts were carried out at UCM to design, build and test a 12 m long commercial scale prototype concentrating thermal-only collector system and at GTI to design, build and test a matching 650°C capable particle TTS system. The nominal 50 kWth collector consists of a parabolic trough and three 4 m long two-stage receivers in series. Prior to on-sun testing, a 4 m long receiver was fabricated and successfully tested at 650 °C in a laboratory setting for 100 hrs of continuous operation showing less than 15% radiation loss. A 7 m wide x 17 m long parabolic trough was then installed at UCM for on-sun testing of the 12 m long receiver, and concurrently several 4 m long receivers were built. The optics of the parabolic trough were calibrated, and on-sun test were carried out on 12 m long receivers. During tests, the intense solar radiation (53x) caused the absorber tubes in the receivers to bend, reducing the overall optical efficiency. To address the bending issue, a self-consistent algorithm that includes ray tracing, thermal and deformation models was developed to perform thermal stress analysis on absorbers for parabolic solar collectors. Results obtained with this algorithm showed a dramatic rise in deformation as absorber tube length increases. A combined efficiency parameter that includes the occluded area for the mounts was developed to obtain an optimized tube length obtained. Based on the results, a length of 2.7 m for the absorber + 0.2 m for the coupler was chosen to minimize any bending and optimize optical efficiency while maintaining ease of mounting. The associated particle TTS system was designed, built and successfully tested at GTI. It includes storage, receiving and lock hoppers and piping that simulates the transfer of captured solar energy to an actual industrial furnace. Tests over 77 charge-discharge cycles demonstrated <2% particle degradation, with no problematic particle accumulations and no flow interruptions. The piping pressure drop was about 5 psi. The team also worked with Stanley Consultants (Stanley) to prepare conceptual and preliminary engineering packages to facilitate follow-on development and commercialization efforts. These include process and instrumentation diagram’s (P&ID’s), general arrangements, electrical one-line, project definitions document, equipment data sheets, schedule, and construction cost estimate for 2 MWth system. Updated HSS technology commercialization and customer engagement plans and detailed costs and evaluated market trade-offs and manufacturing.

03 NATURAL GAS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Biomanufacturing and bioprocessing of lunar regolith

Microbial biomanufacturing is important to accelerate lunar construction because it can leverage lunar material and waste streams as feedstocks to create a circular production system. In-space bio-mining and biomanufacturing using moon and asteroidal source material will enable the creation of infrastructure, produce industrial fuels and lubricants, and enable recovery of actinides and rare-earth elements (REEs) present in trace concentrations. Moreover, biomanufacturing in closed-loop systems (recycling and reuse of resources toward the establishment of a circular economy) will enable long-term lunar activities by recycling waste (CO 2 , gray water) and producing oxygen and biomaterials. Our response focuses on the use of lunar regolith and waste streams as feedstocks for protein and microbial-enabled biomining and bioprocessing to extract actinides and REEs, and to create biocomposites for lunar infrastructure. We envision an enclosed process that initiates with (1a) extracting actinides and REEs from lunar regolith using immobilized proteins, followed by (1b) creating biocomposites from the post-extracted lunar regolith for infrastructure, and (1c) cultivating diatoms and other microalgae on waste streams to harvest silica shells for incorporating into biocomposites and to generate O 2 for human respiration and/or producing refinable feedstocks. LLNL has significant expertise in all three processes and provides facilities, personnel, and expertise at the intersection of metal (lanthanide, actinide, transition) separations, purifications, biohydrometallurgy, radiobiochemistry, synthetic and systems biology, and materials science and engineering. Importantly, all three processes are relatively well-studied for Earth-based workflows and can be derisked for demonstration on the lunar surface by 2029.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2020

The Model System Saccharomyces cerevisiae Versus Emerging Non-Model Yeasts for the Production of Biofuels

Microorganisms are effective platforms for the production of a variety of chemicals including biofuels, commodity chemicals, polymers and other natural products. However, deep cellular understanding is required for improvement of current biofuel cell factories to truly transform the Bioeconomy. Modifications in microbial metabolic pathways and increased resistance to various types of stress caused by the production of these chemicals are crucial in the generation of robust and efficient production hosts. Recent advances in systems and synthetic biology provide new tools for metabolic engineering to design strategies and construct optimal biocatalysts for the sustainable production of desired chemicals, especially in the case of ethanol and fatty acid production. Yeast is an efficient producer of bioethanol and most of the available synthetic biology tools have been developed for the industrial yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Non-conventional yeast systems have several advantageous characteristics that are not easily engineered such as ethanol tolerance, low pH tolerance, thermotolerance, inhibitor tolerance, genetic diversity and so forth. Currently, synthetic biology is still in its initial steps for studies in non-conventional yeasts such as Yarrowia lipolytica, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Issatchenkia orientalis and Pichia pastoris. Therefore, the development and application of advanced synthetic engineering tools must also focus on these underexploited, non-conventional yeast species. Herein, we review the basic synthetic biology tools that can be applied to the standard S. cerevisiae model strain, as well as those that have been developed for non-conventional yeasts. In addition, we will discuss the recent advances employed to develop non-conventional yeast strains that are efficient for the production of a variety of chemicals through the use of metabolic engineering and synthetic biology.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2023

Phase I Summary of Management Activities - Advanced Construction Technology Initiative Project

As the end of the year is approached, it is essential to review the National Reactor Innovation Center (NRIC) management activities undertaken during the Advanced Construction Technology Initiative (ACTI) project. The ACTI project was launched to support a transformation in nuclear energy construction, management, and deployment costs, enabling nuclear energy to make important contributions to the energy systems of the future. This transformation will increase the confidence of investors, energy system planners, policymakers, and ultimately consumers in the capability of nuclear energy to meet future needs; thus, it represents a critical element of advanced nuclear energy system demonstration. Development and/or demonstration project(s) will consider regulatory requirements for commercial nuclear implementation and will incorporate strategies to develop regulator experience and review of the technology. GE Hitachi (GEH), a leading player in the nuclear industry that offers a range of products and services including nuclear reactor design, fuel supply, and decommissioning solutions, submitted a proposal for the ACTI project. GEH was awarded the contract for the first phase of the project.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗

DOE OSTI2021

Monte Carlo Simulations in Support of NorthStar Irradiation Facility Commissioning Procedure

NorthStar Medical Radioisotopes LLC is constructing an irradiation facility at which electron accelerators will induce photo-transmutation (i.e., neutron knockout) of molybdenum-100 (Mo-100) to produce medically useful Mo-99. The facility will house two high-intensity electron RhodotronTM accelerators developed by IBA Industrial. The nominal power of each Rhodotron is 125kW at 40 MeV beam energy. The production target is made of metallic molybdenum enriched with Mo-100 isotope. It will be irradiated by electron beams and will itself play a role in electron conversion to intense X-rays. A full description of the NorthStar target as well as the concept of radiation shielding of the facility can be found in our previous report. The NorthStar irradiation facility is under commissioning now. The goal of the present work is to support the commissioning process by: (1) Studying residual radiation and activation to minimize personnel exposure and inform radiation waste management; (2) Using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) of the irradiated target to ensure the facility design is safe and reliable; and (3) Helping to determine radiation protection requirements during operation. Monte Carlo simulations are used for the analyses. Most of the results are presented as 3D arrays representing spatial distribution of values across simulated geometries: radiation energy depositions, ambient doses, residual isotopes accumulated, and residual doses.

07 ISOTOPE AND RADIATION SOURCES↗

DOE OSTI2024

FORCE Update 2024

The Framework for Optimization of Resources and Economics (FORCE) tool suite is the U.S. Department of Energy’s Nuclear Integrated Energy Systems (IES) Program flagship tool suite for technoeconomic IES analysis of IES. This tool suite is useful for analysis designed to evaluate and improve the technoeconomics of energy production systems, particularly for systems including nuclear technology. In this report, we document the development activity for the FORCE tool suite to extend its capabilities as performed during fiscal year 2024. In addition to reliability and accessibility, capability is one of the three standards guiding the development of the FORCE tool suite and the software codes that are its constituent parts. Extending the capabilities of the FORCE tool suite allows analysis both within the IES program as well as industry, university, and laboratory partners to perform analysis with more accuracy, insight, and impactful narrative. Four areas of capability development were the focus of activity this year: economic parameter uncertainty quantification, multiresolution analysis, components-to-optimization workflow automation, and statespace construction workflows for real-time optimal control. In economic parameter uncertainty quantification, the ability of HERON to capture risk due to scenarios (weather and energy demand uncertainty) was expanded to also include uncertainties in financial parameters such as capital cost or operation and maintenance costs. By including these sources of uncertainty, which are sometimes very large compared with scenario uncertainty, HERON is better able to capture the risk posed by investment in various IES technology. Because of this, analysts can also consider the reduction in risks that can be realized by choice of some technologies. In multiresolution analysis, development activity extended on work completed previously. In fiscal year 2023, methods for decomposing time series signals, such as demand, solar and wind availability, and price profiles, were analyzed and down-selected to those most effective at splitting signals into different resolutions. These resolutions allow considering the influence of different energy demand and supply behaviors across different time scales. For example, energy demand might be divided into seasonal, weekly, and hourly profiles. In fiscal year 2024, this preliminary work was extended and implemented within the Risk Analysis Virtual Environment (RAVEN) risk and uncertainty analysis platform, which is used throughout the FORCE framework. This development of the “multi-resolution time series analysis” (MR-TSA) module in RAVEN allows training synthetic history generators on complex time series. These synthetic history generators can then be used in HERON for generating scenarios that represent possible market and weather scenarios that can be analyzed on different time scales. We envision completing this work in the future, implementing multiresolution dispatch optimization strategies that can make the most beneficial use of these stratified time histories. In components-to-optimization workflow development, workflows for translating user inputs of components into algorithms for algebraic optimization were selected and implemented. Similar algorithms within the Holistic Energy Resource Optimization Network (HERON) were separated from the main code base of HERON and gathered with the components-to-optimization workflows in the new Dispatch Optimization Variable Engine (DOVE) software library. This modularization allows FORCE users to analyze dispatch optimization and energy system duty cycles independently of HERON, which previously was a burdensome task. Additionally, these dispatch optimization algorithms, set up in an independent library, can now be used across all software applications within FORCE, especially including the real-time optimal control software Optimization of Real-time Capacity Allocation (ORCA). Allowing FORCE software to share dispatch optimization algorithms within a single library allows for improved software maintenance and reliability. In statespace characterization workflow development, alternative workflows for optimizing dispatch with additional technical accuracy was the focus, particularly to improve the real-time optimization decision making in ORCA. Using algorithms and workflows initially developed for the Feasible Actuator Range Modifier (FARM), workflows for determining the statespace representation of IES were identified and demonstrated. The resulting dispatch optimization required a more robust optimization algorithm than that originally used in HERON (and moved to DOVE), which required adding an alternate workflow to DOVE that can more accurately match the behavior of physical systems using a partial differential equation representation. In conclusion, capability developments in the FORCE tool suite in fiscal year 2024 have improved the ability of the FORCE tool suite to perform

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2020

Combined Heat and Power Technology Fact Sheet Series: Thermal Energy Storage

This fact sheet provides an overview of thermal energy storage (TES) technologies, which heat or cool a storage medium and, when needed, deliver the stored thermal energy to meet heating or cooling needs. TES systems are used in commercial buildings, industrial processes, and district energy installations to deliver stored thermal energy during peak demand periods, thereby reducing peak energy use. TES systems are often integrated with electric or absorption chillers to reduce peak electricity costs and, in the case of new construction, to reduce capital costs by optimizing chiller size. TES technologies can support sites that have either renewable or fossil power generation, including combined heat and power (CHP) installations. With CHP, TES can help optimize equipment size by reducing the required peak CHP thermal capacity and increasing annual CHP usage. TES can also provide turbine inlet cooling for gas turbines used in CHP applications, which increases power production in hot ambient conditions.

Combined Heat and Power, CHP, Thermal Energy, Tech↗

DOE OSTI2022

Geothermal Hydraulic Stimulation: Overview of Methods and Best Practices

This paper outlines important information related to the hydraulic stimulation of geothermal wells and considerations for regulators responsible for evaluating applications to conduct these operations. Hydraulic stimulation applied to geothermal wells is an evolving technology that is different from the hydraulic fracturing process widely used to complete unconventional oil and gas wells. Important differences relate to operating pressures, variations in rock and fracture processes, and characteristics and disposal of hydraulic fracture fluids. Hydraulic stimulation is not widely used in the geothermal industry; however, future development of enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) will require hydraulic stimulation in order to enhance and create fracture permeability to allow wells to deliver sufficient heat and fluid to power plants. Gigawatts of EGS potential have been identified (U.S. Department of Energy 2019), so it is expected that the use of hydraulic stimulation of geothermal wells will be more common in the future. At present, there are no formal regulations guiding drilling programs or sundry notices that propose hydraulic stimulation of geothermal wells. On federal lands, important constraints and oversight are embedded in the process for obtaining Geothermal Drilling Permits outlined in the Code of Federal Regulations (43 CFR Section 3262.11); in Geothermal Resource Order 2 (GRO 2) guidance for assessment and mitigation of impacts of geothermal operations as well as construction and testing of geothermal wells; and in a Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Induced Seismicity Instruction Memorandum (BLM 2018). Additionally, local knowledge from BLM field offices and expertise of BLM engineers, or that of state regulators for operations on private and state lands, will be applied to fully assess operator applications to conduct geothermal hydraulic stimulation activities. Significant research effort has been directed toward EGS, so geothermal hydraulic stimulation techniques, impacts, and results are evolving and becoming better understood, including adaptation of decades of oil and gas industry experience with hydraulic fracturing of unconventional reservoirs. Recent EGS activities in the United States provide details about hydraulic stimulation with respect to oversight, stimulation design, execution, and results. Based on experience to date, the important issues to address when hydraulically stimulating a geothermal well include the following: 1. Wellbore construction and integrity must be appropriate to protect groundwater and manage stimulation pressures. 2. Understanding of lithology, faults, fractures, and subsurface stress state is necessary to design stimulation plans and predict results. 3. Seismic monitoring allows for observation and mitigation of induced seismicity.

geothermal↗

DOE OSTI2023

Advanced Structured Adsorbent Architectures for Transformative Carbon Dioxide Capture Performance (Final Report)

Svante is a world leader at using solid sorbents for low-cost Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ) capture, a technology which is recognized as critical in meeting the dual mandates of energy security/reliability and the mitigation of man-made CO 2 emissions. Svante has been developing proprietary adsorbent material compositions, forming them into structured laminates, developing and optimizing process cycles, and system design for efficient capture of CO 2 from post-combustion flue gases of thermal power plants and industrial facilities. The deployment of first-generation CO 2 capture technology has been significantly hampered by high costs and energy penalties, among other barriers. Second generation CO 2 capture technologies (including the Mark I variant of Svante’s Veloxotherm™ adsorption-based technology), utilizing single adsorbent architecture, show promise for reducing the barriers to deploying CO 2 capture plants in commercially meaningful numbers. The objective of this project was to evaluate the Recipient’s transformational (Mark-II) VeloxoTherm™ Technology via the development and bench-scale testing of an advanced structured adsorbent, including novel Bi-layer, laminated adsorbent structures and segmented beds. Svante selected, synthesized, and characterized tailored solid adsorbents for computational modeling, advanced structured adsorbent development, process simulations, and dynamic bench scale (~1-10 kg/day CO 2 captured) testing using an existing single-bed VeloxoTherm™ Station (VTS) coupled with a natural gas-fired boiler. Segmented beds used the in-house, multi-bed Process Demonstration Unit (PDU) to demonstrate key performance indicators (KPIs), such as recovery, product purity, regeneration energy, and the integrated system's productivity in lifetime analysis. Segmented beds were used at a 1 tonne per day (TPD) unit at an industrial site to provide bench-scale validation of performance in an industrial setting. Svante was developing and optimizing the post-combustion CO 2 adsorption technology architectures, including the Bi-layer and segmented laminated adsorbent structure design, integrated rapid cycle temperature swing adsorption (RC-TSA) cycle, flow path architecture, and adsorbent bed construction and packaging (including gas porting) to progress towards achievement of DOE’s Transformational CO 2 Capture goals of 95% CO 2 purity and a cost of electricity at least 30% lower than a supercritical Pulverized Coal (PC) power plant with CO 2 capture, or approximately $30 per tonne of CO 2 captured ready for demonstration by 2030. The main requirements to reach the DOE target cost of carbon capture below $30/MT using Rapid-Cycling Temperature Swing Adsorption (RC-TSA) are as follows: (1) Increased capacity at different CO 2 concentrations, (2) Increased sorbents cycle life, (3) Increased O 2 resistance, and (4) Decreased steam requirement to extract 1 kg of CO 2 .

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗

DOE OSTI2023

Advancing Energy Efficiency Through Workforce Training

This Final Technical Report summarizes the work done on to develop and implement the Energy Basics Training Tool with industry partners and the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. This project leveraged existing infrastructure and content developed by DOE in the Building America Solution Center (BASC) and Building Science Education Solution Center (BSESC) to design model content sets for use in entry-level construction programs at the high school certificate, boot camp, and other entry level training programs.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2026

Colorado (Pueblo) Regional DAC Hub TA-1: Feasibility (Phase 0a) (Final Technical Report)

This project supports the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) mission to reduce the environmental and climate impacts of fossil fuels and industrial processes, contributing to the goal of achieving net-zero emissions across the U.S. economy. The primary objective is to conduct a feasibility study for a Regional Direct Air Capture (DAC) Hub in the Southern Colorado region, northeast of Pueblo. The geographic construct of this hub is based on the Denver-Julesburg Basin – a geological area where a significant number of geological storage studies have been conducted (See Figure 1). The project will leverage the work of Project Eos, a CarbonSAFE Phase III study led by the Colorado School of Mines and CarbonAmerica. The DAC Hub aims to capture, store, and/or utilize at least 1,000,000 tonnes of CO 2 from the atmosphere annually. To achieve this, the project team is designing a system with an initial capacity of 100,000 tonnes per year. This feasibility-stage project will formulate the Regional DAC Hub concept and team to conduct the relevant analysis, networking and community stakeholder engagement necessary to advance the project to the design stage.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2020

Leveraging 3D CAD and Virtual Reality in Design of the Calcine Disposition Project - 20512

Fluor Idaho's Calcine Disposition Project (CDP) is leveraging the power of three-dimensional (3D) visualization, light detection and ranging (Lidar), and virtual reality to improve designs and worker safety. With the use of computer-aided design (CAD) modeling software, the CDP has created 3D models of the facility and systems to aid in the design, development, and operation of its retrieval and transfer system. This by itself is nothing new and has been done in industry for years. The CDP project however is taking this a few steps farther with the use of Lidar and virtual reality software. The CRP is tasked with removing a radioactive granular material from stainless steel bins located in concrete vaults that were constructed in the late 1950's and early 1960's. While construction drawings are available, it is not certain that the drawings are as-built or how accurate they truly are. Part of the project requires precise placement of equipment on to bins around multiple pipe, electrical lines, and bin stiffeners. Relying solely on the existing drawings and models created from these drawings is highly risky and prone to failure. The first step to determine the precise location and orientation of all obstructions in the vault the project will use a Lidar system to scan the vault structure and precisely locate all vault and bin components. Once this information is obtained, the data will be integrated into the CAD model. The model will then be verified, and a true as-built model developed. Precise component location, size, and orientation will be used for final design and placement of retrieval components. The second step will be to take the verified 3D model and scan data and import it into virtual reality software creating a virtual world. While some work on the project requires all work to be completed remotely due to high radiation fields, some areas have low enough radiation levels that personnel can enter and perform work. With the use of a virtual reality headset, operators and technicians will be able to enter our virtual world and become familiar with the surroundings and perform work prior to ever entering the radiation environment. This training is expected to pay dividends by improving worker efficiency, reducing errors, and improving confidence that the work can be performed as expected. It will play a key aspect in as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA) principles. An additional aspect in using the Lidar scans and virtual environment, is that it will give engineers and managers an opportunity to revisit the facility, especially radiation areas, at any time to obtain design information and measurements that may be costly or impossible to obtain once the facility transitions into radiation operations. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2021

Glass/glass photovoltaic module reliability and degradation: a review

Glass/glass (G/G) photovoltaic (PV) module construction is quickly rising in popularity due to increased demand for bifacial PV modules, with additional applications for thin-film and building-integrated PV technologies. G/G modules are expected to withstand harsh environmental conditions and extend the installed module lifespan to greater than 30 years compared to conventional glass/backsheet (G/B) modules. With the rapid growth of G/G deployment, understanding the outdoor performance, degradation, and reliability of this PV module construction becomes highly valuable. In this review, we present the history of G/G modules that have existed in the field for the past 20 years, their subsequent reliability issues under different climates, and methods for accelerated testing and characterization of both cells and packaging materials. We highlight some general trends of G/G modules, such as greater degradation when using poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) (EVA) encapsulants, causing the industry to move toward polyolefin-based encapsulants. Transparent backsheets have also been introduced as an alternative to the rear glass for decreasing the module weight and aiding the effusion of trapped gaseous degradation products in the laminate. New amendments to IEC 61215 standard protocols for G/G bifacial modules have also been proposed so that the rear side power generation and UV exposure will be standardized. We further summarize a suite of destructive and non-destructive characterization techniques, such as current-voltage scans, module electro-optical imaging, adhesion tests, nanoscale structural/chemical investigation, and forensic analysis, to provide deeper insights into the fundamental properties of the module materials degradation and how it can be monitored in the G/G construction. This will set the groundwork for future research and product development.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Glass/Glass Photovoltaic Module Reliability and Degradation: A Review - Figures

transparent backsheet↗