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NASA NTRS2001

Cloud Physics Lidar Measurements During the SAFARI-2000 Field Campaign

A new remote sensing instrument, the Cloud Physics Lidar (CPL) has been built for use on the ER-2 aircraft. The first deployment for CPL was the SAFARI-2000 field campaign during August-September 2000. The CPL is a three-wavelength lidar designed for studies of cirrus, subvisual cirrus, and boundary layer aerosols. The CPL utilizes a high repetition rate, low pulse energy laser with photon counting detectors. A brief description of the CPL instrument will be given, followed by examples of CPL data products. In particular, examples of aerosol backscatter, including boundary layer smoke and cirrus clouds will be shown. Resulting optical depth estimates derived from the aerosol measurements will be shown. Comparisons of the CPL optical depth and optical depth derived from microPulse Lidar and the AATS-14 sunphotomer will be shown.

McGill, Matthew↗
NASA NTRS2011

Some Insights of Spectral Optimization in Ocean Color Inversion

In the past decades various algorithms have been developed for the retrieval of water constituents from the measurement of ocean color radiometry, and one of the approaches is spectral optimization. This approach defines an error target (or error function) between the input remote sensing reflectance and the output remote sensing reflectance, with the latter modeled with a few variables that represent the optically active properties (such as the absorption coefficient of phytoplankton and the backscattering coefficient of particles). The values of the variables when the error reach a minimum (optimization is achieved) are considered the properties that form the input remote sensing reflectance; or in other words, the equations are solved numerically. The applications of this approach implicitly assume that the error is a monotonic function of the various variables. Here, with data from numerical simulation and field measurements, we show the shape of the error surface, in a way to justify the possibility of finding a solution of the various variables. In addition, because the spectral properties could be modeled differently, impacts of such differences on the error surface as well as on the retrievals are also presented.

Lee, Zhongping↗
NASA NTRS2012

Linear Estimation of Particle Bulk Parameters from Multi-Wavelength Lidar Measurements

An algorithm for linear estimation of aerosol bulk properties such as particle volume, effective radius and complex refractive index from multiwavelength lidar measurements is presented. The approach uses the fact that the total aerosol concentration can well be approximated as a linear combination of aerosol characteristics measured by multiwavelength lidar. Therefore, the aerosol concentration can be estimated from lidar measurements without the need to derive the size distribution, which entails more sophisticated procedures. The definition of the coefficients required for the linear estimates is based on an expansion of the particle size distribution in terms of the measurement kernels. Once the coefficients are established, the approach permits fast retrieval of aerosol bulk properties when compared with the full regularization technique. In addition, the straightforward estimation of bulk properties stabilizes the inversion making it more resistant to noise in the optical data. Numerical tests demonstrate that for data sets containing three aerosol backscattering and two extinction coefficients (so called 3 + 2 ) the uncertainties in the retrieval of particle volume and surface area are below 45% when input data random uncertainties are below 20 %. Moreover, using linear estimates allows reliable retrievals even when the number of input data is reduced. To evaluate the approach, the results obtained using this technique are compared with those based on the previously developed full inversion scheme that relies on the regularization procedure. Both techniques were applied to the data measured by multiwavelength lidar at NASA/GSFC. The results obtained with both methods using the same observations are in good agreement. At the same time, the high speed of the retrieval using linear estimates makes the method preferable for generating aerosol information from extended lidar observations. To demonstrate the efficiency of the method, an extended time series of observations acquired in Turkey in May 2010 was processed using the linear estimates technique permitting, for what we believe to be the first time, temporal-height distributions of particle parameters.

linear estimation↗
NASA NTRS2020

Robust Algorithm for Estimating Total Suspended Solids (TSS) in Inland and Nearshore Coastal Waters

One of the challenging tasks in modern aquatic remote sensing is the retrieval of near-surface concentrations of Total Suspended Solids (TSS). This study aims to present a Statistical, inherent Optical property (IOP) -based, and muLti-conditional Inversion proceDure (SOLID) for enhanced retrievals of satellite-derived TSS under a wide range of in-water bio-optical conditions in rivers, lakes, estuaries, and coastal waters. In this study, using a large in situ database (N > 3500), the SOLID model is devised using a three-step procedure: (a) water-type classification of the input remote sensing reflectance (R(sub rs)), (b) retrieval of particulate backscattering (b(sub bp)) in the red or near-infrared (NIR) regions using semi-analytical, machine-learning, and empirical models, and (c) estimation of TSS from b(sub bp) via water-type-specific empirical models. Using an independent subset of our in situ data (N = 2729) with TSS ranging from 0.1 to 2626.8 [g/m (exp 3)], the SOLID model is thoroughly examined and compared against several state-of-the-art algorithms (Miller and McKee, 2004; Nechad et al., 2010; Novoa et al., 2017; Ondrusek et al., 2012; Petus et al., 2010). We show that SOLID outperforms all the other models to varying degrees, i.e., from 10 to > 100%, depending on the statistical attributes (e.g., global versus water-type-specific metrics). For demonstration purposes, the model is implemented for images acquired by the MultiSpectral Imager aboard Sentinel-2A/B over the Chesapeake Bay, San-Francisco-Bay-Delta Estuary, Lake Okeechobee, and Lake Taihu. To enable generating consistent, multimission TSS products, its performance is further extended to, and evaluated for, other missions, such as the Ocean and Land Color Instrument (OLCI), Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS), and Operational Land Imager (OLI). Sensitivity analyses on uncertainties induced by the atmospheric correction indicate that 10% uncertainty in Rrs leads to < 20% uncertainty in TSS retrievals from SOLID. While this study suggests that SOLID has a potential for producing TSS products in global coastal and inland waters, our statistical analysis certainly verifies that there is still a need for improving retrievals across a wide spectrum of particle loads.

Total suspended solids↗
NASA NTRS1991

Comparison of CO2 backscatter using Mie theory from aerosol measurements over Pacific Basin with lidar data

Results of a comparison of aerosol backscatter with measurements over the Pacific Basin obtained from the CW CO2 lidars are presented. Both the Laser Optical Particle Counter (POPC) and CW CO2 lidars performed measurements at the flight level close to the aircraft and measured the same air mass. From the number distributions measured during a flight over Tokyo in June 1990, the backscatter coefficient for each component is calculated by integrating the differential backscatter. Fifteen sets of number distributions measured by the LOPC during the flight are used to predict aerosol backscatter. The backscatter from microphysics of the aerosols obtained from the LOPC and from the lidar measurements are in good agreement. It is concluded that the size distribution and composition of the aerosols can change dramatically as a function of altitude and location. The magnitude of the aerosol backscatter can vary by over three orders of magnitude from clear air to an aerosol layer.

Srivastava, Vandana↗
NASA NTRS1998

Aerosol analysis techniques and results from micro pulse lidar

The effect of clouds and aerosol on the atmospheric energy balance is a key global change problem. Full knowledge of aerosol distributions is difficult to obtain by passive sensing alone. Aerosol and cloud retrievals in several important areas can be significantly improved with active remote sensing by lidar. Micro Pulse Lidar (MPL) is an aerosol and cloud profilometer that provides a detailed picture of the vertical structure of boundary layer and elevated dust or smoke plume aerosols. MPL is a compact, fully eyesafe, ground-based, zenith pointing instrument capable of full-time, long-term unattended operation at 523 nm. In October of 1993, MPL began taking full-time measurements for the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) program at its Southern Great Plains (SGP) site and has since expanded to ARM sites in the Tropical West Pacific (TWP) and the North Slope of Alaska (NSA). Other MPL's are moving out to some of the 60 world-wide Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) sites which are already equipped with automatic sun-sky scanning spectral radiometers providing total column optical depth measurements. Twelve additional MPL's have been purchased by NASA to add to the aerosol and cloud database of the EOS ground validation network. The original MPL vertical resolution was 300 meters but the newer versions have a vertical resolution of 30 meters. These expanding data sets offer a significant new resource for atmospheric radiation analysis. Under the direction of Jim Spinhirne, the MPL analysis team at NASA/GSFC has developed instrument correction and backscatter analysis techniques for ARM to detect cloud boundaries and analyze vertical aerosol structures. A summary of MPL applications is found in Hlavka (1997). With the aid of independent total column optical depth instruments such as the Multifilter Rotating Shadowband Radiometer (MFRSR) at the ARM sites or sun photometers at the AERONET sites, the MPL data can be calibrated, and time-resolved vertical profiles of aerosol optical depth as well as aerosol extinction can be calculated. The techniques used to calibrate the lidar, calculate the aerosol extinction-to-backscatter ratio, and produce profiles of aerosol extinction and aerosol optical depths, will be described. Results using these techniques will be presented for case studies at the ARM site in the Tropical West Pacific and later in the Southern Great Plains.

Hlavka, Dennis L.↗
NASA NTRS1997

Comparison of Modeled Backscatter using Measured Aerosol Microphysics with Focused CW Lidar Data over Pacific

During NASA's GLObal Backscatter Experiment (GLOBE) II flight mission over the Pacific Ocean in May-June 1990, extensive aerosol backscatter data sets from two continuous wave, focused CO2 Doppler lidars and an aerosol microphysics data set from a laser optical particle counter (LOPC) were obtained. Changes in aerosol loading in various air masses with associated changes in chemical composition, from sulfuric acid and sulfates to dustlike crustal material, significantly affected aerosol backscatter, causing variation of about 3 to 4 orders of magnitude. Some of the significant backscatter features encountered in different air masses were the low backscatter in subtropical air with even lower values in the tropics near the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), highly variable backscatter in the ITCZ, mid-tropospheric aerosol backscatter background mode, and high backscatter in an Asian dust plume off the Japanese coast. Differences in aerosol composition and backscatter for northern and southern hemisphere also were observed. Using the LOPC measurements of physical and chemical aerosol properties, we determined the complex refractive index from three different aerosol mixture models to calculate backscatter. These values provided a well-defined envelope of modeled backscatter for various atmospheric conditions, giving good agreement with the lidar data over a horizontal sampling of approximately 18000 km in the mid-troposphere.

Srivastava, Vandana↗
NASA NTRS2016

Characterizing the Asian Tropopause Aerosol Layer (ATAL) Using Satellite Observations, Balloon Measurements and a Chemical Transport Model

Satellite observations and numerical modeling studies have demonstrated that the Asian Summer Monsoon (ASM) provide a conduit for gas-phase pollutants in south Asia to reach the lower stratosphere. Now, observations from the CALIPSO satellite have revealed the Asian Tropopause Aerosol Layer (ATAL), a summertime accumulation of aerosols in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere (UTLS), associated with the ASM anticyclone. The ATAL has potential implications for regional cloud properties, climate, and chemical processes in the UTLS. Here, we show in situ measurements from balloon-borne instruments, aircraft, and satellite observations, together with trajectory and chemical transport model (CTM) simulations to explore the origin, composition, physical, and optical properties of aerosols in the ATAL. In particular, we show balloon-data from our BATAL-2015 field campaign to India and Saudi Arabia in summer 2015, which includes in situ backscatter measurements from COBALD instruments, and the first observations of size and volatility of aerosols in the ATAL layer using optical particle counters (OPCs). Back trajectory calculations initialized from CALIPSO observations point to deep convection over North India as a principal source of ATAL aerosols. Available aircraft observations suggest significant sulfur and carbonaceous components to the ATAL, which is supported by simulations using the GEOS-Chem CTM. Source elimination studies conducted with the GEOS-Chem indicate that ATAL aerosols originate primary from south Asian sources, in contrast with some earlier studies.

Fairlie, T. D.↗
DOE OSTI2020

Micropulse Lidar Cloud Mask (MPLCMASK) Value-Added Product for the Fast-Switching Polarized Micropulse Lidar Technical Report

Lidar backscattered signal is a useful tool for identifying vertical cloud structure in the atmosphere in optically thin clouds. Cloud boundaries derived from lidar signals are a necessary input for popular ARM data products, such as the Active Remote Sensing of Clouds (ARSCL) product. An operational cloud boundary algorithm (Wang and Sassen 2001) has been implemented for use with the ARM Micropulse Lidar (MPL) systems. In addition to retrieving cloud boundaries above 500 m, the value-added product (VAP) named Micropulse Lidar Cloud Mask (MPLCMASK) applies lidar-specific corrections (i.e., range-square, background, deadtime, and overlap) as described in Campbell et al. (2002) to the measured backscattered lidar. Depolarization ratio is computed using the methodology developed by Flynn et al. (2007) for polarization-capable MPL systems. The cloud boundaries output from MPLCMASK will be the primary lidar cloud mask for input to the ARSCL product and will be applied to all MPL systems, including historical data sets.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS1990

An approach to the detection of long-term trends in upper stratospheric ozone from space

A central problem in the detection of long-term trends in the upper stratospheric ozone from orbiting remote sensors involves the separation of instrument drifts from true geophysical changes. Periodic flights of a Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet radiometer (SSBUV) on the Space Shuttle will allow the detection of drifts in optically identical sensors (SBUV/2) carried on operational satellites. A detailed simulation of the SSBUV and SBUV/2 datasets defines the accuracy that can be attained by the in-orbit calibration procedure. The repeatability of the SSBUV calibration from one flight to the next is the most critical variable in the analysis. A repeatability near + or - 1.0 percent is essential for detection and correction of drifts in the SBUV/2 radiance measurements. The simulations show that true geophysical trends in backscattered radiance can be inferred to an accuracy of approximately + or - 1.0 percent per decade when SSBUV flies approximately once per year and provides a precise calibration correction to the SBUV/2 dataset over a full decade.

Frederick, John E.↗
NASA NTRS1991

GLObal Backscatter Experiment (GLOBE) Pacific survey mission

NASA conducted the GLObal Backscatter Experiment (GLOBE) Survey Mission over the near coastal and remote Pacific Ocean during 6 to 30 Nov. 1989 (GLOBE 1) and 13 May to 5 Jun. 1990 (GLOBE 2). These missions studied the optical, physical, and chemical properties of atmospheric aerosols. Particular emphasis was given to the magnitude and spatial variability of aerosol backscatter coefficients at mid-infrared wavelengths, and to the remote middle and upper troposphere, where these aerosol properties are poorly understood. Survey instruments were selected to provide either direct beta measurements at the key wavelengths, empirical links with long term or global scale aerosol climatologies, or aerosol microphysics data required to model any of these quantities. The survey deployment included both long distance 6 to 8 hour transit flights and detailed 4 to 6 hour local flights. Several general features were observed from preliminary Survey data analyses. Validation and intercomparison results have shown good agreement, usually better than a factor of two. Atmospheric aerosols frequently exhibited a three layer vertical structure, with (1) high and fairly uniform backscatter in the shallow cloud capped marine boundary layer; (2) moderate and highly variable backscatter in a deeper overlaying cloud pumped layer; and (3) low, regionally uniform, but seasonally and latitudinally variable backscatter in the middle and upper troposphere. The survey missions represent two isolated snapshots of a small portion of the global aerosol system. Consequently, Survey results can best be understood by synthesizing them with the more comprehensive GLOBE data base, which is being compiled at NASA-Marshall.

Bowdle, David A.↗
NASA NTRS2000

Scanning Lidar Transceiver Telescopes Using Holographic Optical Elements

Scanning enables remote measurements perpendicular to the ground track of airborne and spaceborne lidar systems, giving us three dimensional images of atmospheric backscatter or other measurable parameters. For ground based systems, scanning allows one to record a time series of data in multiple spatial dimensions. The large size and cost of scanning systems for atmospheric lidars using conventional scanning technologies is prohibitive for space based systems. By replacing the conventional reflective telescope with a holographic optical element (HOE) in the lidar, single axis conical scanning can be achieved with a mechanically simple system. Relatively inexpensive to produce, HOES can be used to satisfy a variety of scanning lidar applications. I will introduce the concept of the HOE and describe its production and use as a scanning lidar transceiver telescope. I will describe the advantages as well as the disadvantages and limitations of HOES in this application. Optical performance test results and two lidar systems currently using HOES will be described. Examples of data taken with these systems will be presented. Current and planned future developments will be described, including scanning without mechanical motion and wide field-of-view lidar imaging.

Schwemmer, Geary K.↗
DOE OSTI2024

Effect of post-deposition heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of NASA HR-1 cold spray coatings

The primary goal of this work was to examine the impact of heat treatment on the evolution of microstructure and mechanical properties of NASA HR-1 cold spray coatings. Coatings were produced employing a high pressure cold spray system using N2 and He process gases and the effect of process gas and deposition temperature on the microstructure and mechanical properties of the coatings was examined. Microstructural characterization was performed using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, micro X-ray computed tomography, and electron backscatter diffraction. NASA HR-1 coatings produced with He process gas exhibited improved plastic deformation and resulted in the lowest porosity compared to those deposited with N2 process gas. All coatings showed brittle failure with limited ductility in the as-deposited condition. Heat treatment of the NASA HR-1 cold spray coatings was performed at 550°C and 950°C for 1 h to improve the mechanical strength of the coatings. Heat treatment improved the particle bonding and enhanced the mechanical properties of the cold spray coatings. Heat treatment performed at 550°C resulted in higher mechanical strength of coatings, whereas the heat treatment performed at 950°C resulted in recrystallized microstructure and improved ductility of the coatings. However, heat treatment at 950°C resulted in forming the Eta (η) phase and Ni-Ti intermetallics in all the NASA HR-1 cold spray coatings. Here, the overall results suggest that using He as process gas contributed to reduced porosity and enhanced mechanical properties of the cold spray coatings.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Evaluation of Applied Stress on Atmospheric Corrosion and Pitting Characteristics in 304L Stainless Steel

For this study, the effects of applied stress, ranging from tensile to compressive, on the atmospheric pitting corrosion behavior of 304L stainless steel (SS304L) were analyzed through accelerated atmospheric laboratory exposures and microelectrochemical cell analysis. After exposing the lateral surface of a SS304L four-point bend specimen to artificial seawater at 50°C and 35% relative humidity for 50 d, pitting characteristics were determined using optical profilometry and scanning electron microscopy. The SS304L microstructure was analyzed using electron backscatter diffraction. Additionally, localized electrochemical measurements were performed on a similar, unexposed, SS304L four-point bend bar to determine the effects of applied stress on corrosion susceptibility. Under the applied loads and the environment tested, the observed pitting characteristics showed no correlation with the applied stress (from 250 MPa to -250 MPa). Pitting depth, surface area, roundness, and distribution were found to be independent of location on the sample or applied stress. The lack of correlation between pitting statistics and applied stress was more likely due to the aggressive exposure environment, with a sea salt loading of 4 g/m 2 chloride. The pitting characteristics observed were instead governed by the available cathode current and salt distribution, which are a function of sea salt loading, as well as pre-existing underlying microstructure. In microelectrochemical cell experiments performed in Cl - environments comparable to the atmospheric exposure and in environments containing orders of magnitude lower Cl - concentrations, effects of the applied stress on corrosion susceptibility were only apparent in open-circuit potential in low Cl - concentration solutions. Cl - concentration governed the current density and transpassive dissolution potential.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
NASA NTRS1974

The electron microprobe as a metallographic tool

The electron microprobe (EMP) is shown to represent one of the most powerful techniques for the examination of the microstructure of materials. It is an electron optical instrument in which compositional and topographic information is obtained from regions smaller than 1 micron in diameter on a specimen. Photographs of compositional and topographic changes in 1-sq-mm to 20-sq-micron areas on various types of specimens can also be obtained. These photographs are strikingly similar to optical photomicrographs. Various signals measured in the EMP (X-rays, secondary electrons, backscattered electrons, etc.) are discussed, along with their resolution and the type of information they may help obtain. In addition to elemental analysis, solid state detecting and scanning techniques are reviewed. Various techniques extending the EMP instrument capabilities, such as deconvolution and soft X-ray analysis, are also described.

Goldstein, J. I.↗
NASA NTRS1979

Multiple scattering of solar resonance radiation in the nearby interstellar medium. I

The paper presents approximate solutions obtained for a radiative transfer problem that represents a highly-idealized description of the multiple scattering of solar resonance radiation in the nearby interstellar medium. The problem of a point source in the center of a spherically symmetric cavity imbedded in an infinite uniform medium is solved for a range of cavity radii. First and second-order scattering contributions are calculated, and the Eddington approximation is used to estimate the higher order components of the radiation field. It is shown that for coherent scattering at very large cavity radii, the backscattered intensity from the cavity approaches three times the value deduced from the optically thin solution, in agreement with previous work. It is concluded that an accurate analysis of sky background will require including not only the frequency redistribution, but also the correct spatial distribution of density.

Keller, H. U.↗
NASA NTRS1990

Near-nadir radar backscatter from a well-developed sea

The Kirchhoff approximation for the case of well-developed seas is analyzed. In this peculiar case, the equilibrium range in the wave number spectrum corresponds to a cascade pattern in the surface geometry. Its high wave number cutoff is shown to be a major factor of the radar backscatter. This intrinsic scale is evaluated, and both the geometrical and the physical optics terms are related to major parameters of wind-wave dynamics. The range of validity of the Kirchhoff approximation and the relative importance of the diffraction correction are analyzed. Finally, the radar cross section sigma exp 0 of well-developed seas is compared with that of poorly developed seas. The great qualitative difference shown in the wind speed dependence of sigma exp 0 for these two regimes is pointed out as a source of a considerable error trend recently discovered in satellite altimeter wind measurements.

Glazman, Roman E.↗
NASA NTRS1994

Far-ultraviolet emission from the Taurus molecular cloud

Far-ultraviolet spectra of diffuse emission from a region in the Taurus molecular cloud are presented. These data were obtained with the Berkeley spectrometer on NASA's Ultraviolet Experiment (UVX) payload. The intensity of the continuum emission drops as the optical depth increases toward the denser part of the cloud, an effect which is the opposite of that observed for the diffuse flux at high galactic latitudes. At the center of the aperture, the optical depth is very large, and the continuum emission must be produced by backscattering. At the edges of the cloud, the continuum intensity rises by a factor of 2. The data are interpreted with a new radiative transfer model, which is significantly more sophisticated than its predecessors. If the grain scattering properties are constant across the cloud, a unique best-fit combination can be determined from the data. The best-fit albedo is 0.6 +/- 0.1 at 1600 A. The best-fit value for the phase factor g is 0.5 +/- 0.15. The intensity of the flourescence of H2, combined with an upper limit to the column density of atomic hydrogen associated with the cloud, sets a lower limit of about 130/cm to the density in the flourescence region. Our estimate of the flux incident on the cloud at 1000 A is a factor of 2 to 3 lower than the value required to produce the measured flourescence intensity. Most mechanisms which might reconcile the discrepancy reduce the derived albedo and phase factor.

Hurwitz, M.↗