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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 379 records · Page 21
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2017

Transition of Femtosecond-Filament-Solid Interactions from Single to Multiple Filament Regime

High-peak-power fs-laser filaments offer unique characteristics attractive to remote sensing via techniques such as remote laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (R-LIBS). The dynamics of several ablation mechanisms following the interaction between a filament and a solid determines the emission strength and reproducibility of target plasma, which is of relevance for R-LIBS applications. Here, we investigate the space- and time-resolved dynamics of ionic and atomic emission from copper as well as the surrounding atmosphere in order to understand limitations of fs-filament-ablation for standoff energy delivery. Furthermore, we probe the shock front produced from filament-target interaction using time-resolved shadowgraphy and infer laser-material coupling efficiencies for both single and multiple filament regimes through analysis of shock expansion with the Sedov model for point detonation. The results provide insight into plasma structure for the range of peak powers up to 30 times the critical power for filamentation P cr . Despite the stochastic nucleation of multiple filaments at peak-powers greater than 16 P cr , emission of ionic and neutral species increases with pump beam intensity, and short-lived nitrogen emission originating from the ambient is consistently observed. Ultimately, results suggest favorable scaling of emission intensity from target species on the laser pump energy, furthering the prospects for use of filament-solid interactions for remote sensing.

42 ENGINEERING↗
NASA NTRS1993

Direct numerical simulation of isotropic turbulence interacting with a weak shock wave

Direct numerical simulations are used to investigate the interaction of isotropic quasi-incompressible turbulence with a weak shock wave. A linear analysis of the interaction is conducted for comparison with the simulations. Both the simulations and the analysis show that turbulence is enhanced during the interaction. Turbulent kinetic energy and transverse vorticity components are amplified, and turbulent lengthscales are decreased. It is suggested that the amplification mechanism is primarily linear. Simulations also showed a rapid evolution of turbulent kinetic energy just downstream of the shock, a behavior not reproduced by the linear analysis. Analysis of the budget of the turbulent kinetic energy transport equation shows that this behavior can be attributed to the pressure transport term. Multiple compression peaks were found along the mean streamlines at locations where the local shock thickness had increased significantly.

Lee, Sangsan↗
DOE OSTI2013

HOT GAS LINES IN T TAURI STARS

For Classical T Tauri Stars (CTTSs), the resonance doublets of N V, Si IV, and C IV, as well as the He II 1640 A line, trace hot gas flows and act as diagnostics of the accretion process. In this paper we assemble a large high-resolution, high-sensitivity data set of these lines in CTTSs and Weak T Tauri Stars (WTTSs). The sample comprises 35 stars: 1 Herbig Ae star, 28 CTTSs, and 6 WTTSs. We find that the C IV, Si IV, and N V lines in CTTSs all have similar shapes. We decompose the C IV and He II lines into broad and narrow Gaussian components (BC and NC). The most common (50%) C IV line morphology in CTTSs is that of a low-velocity NC together with a redshifted BC. For CTTSs, a strong BC is the result of the accretion process. The contribution fraction of the NC to the C IV line flux in CTTSs increases with accretion rate, from {approx}20% to up to {approx}80%. The velocity centroids of the BCs and NCs are such that V{sub BC} {approx}> 4 V{sub NC}, consistent with the predictions of the accretion shock model, in at most 12 out of 22 CTTSs. We do not find evidence of the post-shock becoming buried in the stellar photosphere due to the pressure of the accretion flow. The He II CTTSs lines are generally symmetric and narrow, with FWHM and redshifts comparable to those of WTTSs. They are less redshifted than the CTTSs C IV lines, by {approx}10 km s{sup -1}. The amount of flux in the BC of the He II line is small compared to that of the C IV line, and we show that this is consistent with models of the pre-shock column emission. Overall, the observations are consistent with the presence of multiple accretion columns with different densities or with accretion models that predict a slow-moving, low-density region in the periphery of the accretion column. For HN Tau A and RW Aur A, most of the C IV line is blueshifted suggesting that the C IV emission is produced by shocks within outflow jets. In our sample, the Herbig Ae star DX Cha is the only object for which we find a P-Cygni profile in the C IV line, which argues for the presence of a hot (10{sup 5} K) wind. For the overall sample, the Si IV and N V line luminosities are correlated with the C IV line luminosities, although the relationship between Si IV and C IV shows large scatter about a linear relationship and suggests that TW Hya, V4046 Sgr, AA Tau, DF Tau, GM Aur, and V1190 Sco are silicon-poor, while CV Cha, DX Cha, RU Lup, and RW Aur may be silicon-rich.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2012

SIMULATION OF DESCENDING MULTIPLE SUPRA-ARCADE RECONNECTION OUTFLOWS IN SOLAR FLARES

After recent Atmospheric Imaging Assembly observations by Savage, McKenzie, and Reeves, we revisit the scenario proposed by us in previous papers. We have shown that sunward, generally dark plasma features that originated above posteruption flare arcades are consistent with a scenario where plasma voids (which we identify as supra-arcade reconnection outflows, SAROs) generate the bouncing and interfering of shocks and expansion waves upstream of an initial localized deposition of energy that is collimated in the magnetic field direction. In this paper, we analyze the multiple production and interaction of SAROs and their individual structures that make them relatively stable features while moving. We compare our results with observations and with the scenarios proposed by other authors.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2017

Particle Acceleration in Two Converging Shocks

Observations by spacecraft such as ACE , STEREO , and others show that there are proton spectral “breaks” with energy E {sub br} at 1–10 MeV in some large CME-driven shocks. Generally, a single shock with the diffusive acceleration mechanism would not predict the “broken” energy spectrum. The present paper focuses on two converging shocks to identify this energy spectral feature. In this case, the converging shocks comprise one forward CME-driven shock on 2006 December 13 and another backward Earth bow shock. We simulate the detailed particle acceleration processes in the region of the converging shocks using the Monte Carlo method. As a result, we not only obtain an extended energy spectrum with an energy “tail” up to a few 10 MeV higher than that in previous single shock model, but also we find an energy spectral “break” occurring on ∼5.5 MeV. The predicted energy spectral shape is consistent with observations from multiple spacecraft. The spectral “break,” then, in this case is caused by the interaction between the CME shock and Earth’s bow shock, and otherwise would not be present if Earth were not in the path of the CME.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2026

A Tutorial on Bayesian analysis of linear shock compression data

Gas gun and other shock compression experiments often produce shock wave velocity measurements that are linearly associated with particle velocity. Traditionally, this empirical relationship is quantified with a single Hugoniot curve that is estimated using least squares regression. However, for downstream modeling and simulation tasks, it is often more useful to have multiple Hugoniot curves in the pressure–volume plane that are consistent with the data. We employ Bayesian uncertainty quantification methods as a framework for propagating measurement uncertainty through to model parameters and predictions. Specifically, this Tutorial shows how to sample multiple Hugoniot curves in the pressure–volume plane that are consistent with the shock wave-particle velocity measurements in a two-step Bayesian approach. First, we obtain an analytical expression for the posterior distribution of the linear model parameters using Bayesian linear regression. Second, we propagate samples from the posterior distribution through the Rankine–Hugoniot equations to yield Hugoniot curves in the pressure–volume plane. The procedure is demonstrated with publicly available data on argon, copper, and nickel, and compared against bootstrapping and linear regression. The Bayesian procedure is shown to be interpretable, computationally inexpensive, and less sensitive than an alternative bootstrapping approach to the removal of the point in the copper dataset that has the largest particle velocity. As a Tutorial on Bayesian methodology for the shock compression community, we provide several derivations and explanations that make this paper self-contained, and make all code and data available at github.com/llnl/BALSCD.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2013

KINEMATICS OF SHOCKED MOLECULAR GAS ADJACENT TO THE SUPERNOVA REMNANT W44

We mapped molecular gas toward the supernova remnant W44 in the HCO{sup +} J = 1-0 line with the Nobeyama Radio Observatory 45 m telescope and in the CO J = 3-2 line with the Atacama Submillimeter Telescope Experiment 10 m telescope. High-velocity emission wings were detected in both lines over the area where the radio shell of W44 overlaps with the molecular cloud in the plane of the sky. We found that the average velocity distributions of the wing emission can be fit by a uniform expansion model. The best-fit expansion velocities are 12.2 {+-} 0.3 km s{sup -1} and 13.2 {+-} 0.2 km s{sup -1} in HCO{sup +} and CO, respectively. The non-wing CO J = 3-2 component is also fit by the same model with an expansion velocity of 4.7 {+-} 0.1 km s{sup -1}. This component might be dominated by a post-shock higher-density region where the shock velocity had slowed down. The kinetic energy of the shocked molecular gas is estimated to be (3.5 {+-} 1.3) Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 49} erg. Adding this and the energy of the previously identified H I shell, we conclude that (1.2 {+-} 0.2) Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 50} erg has been converted into gas kinetic energy from the initial baryonic energy of the W44 supernova. We also found ultra-high-velocity CO J = 3-2 wing emission with a velocity width of {approx}100 km s{sup -1} at (l, b) = (+34. Degree-Sign 73, -0. Degree-Sign 47). The origin of this extremely high velocity wing is a mystery.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

ALMA Cycle 1 observations of the HH 46/47 molecular outflow: structure, entrainment, and core impact

We present Atacama Large Millimeter/sub-millimeter Array Cycle 1 observations of the HH 46/47 molecular outflow using combined 12 m array and Atacama Compact Array observations. The improved angular resolution and sensitivity of our multi-line maps reveal structures that help us study the entrainment process in much more detail and allow us to obtain more precise estimates of outflow properties than in previous observations. We use {sup 13}CO (1–0) and C{sup 18}O (1–0) emission to correct for the {sup 12}CO (1–0) optical depth to accurately estimate the outflow mass, momentum, and kinetic energy. This correction increases the estimates of the mass, momentum, and kinetic energy by factors of about 9, 5, and 2, respectively, with respect to estimates assuming optically thin emission. The new {sup 13}CO and C{sup 18}O data also allow us to trace denser and slower outflow material than that traced by the {sup 12}CO maps, and they reveal an outflow cavity wall at very low velocities (as low as 0.2 km s{sup −1} with respect to the core’s central velocity). Adding the slower material traced only by {sup 13}CO and C{sup 18}O, there is another factor of three increase in the mass estimate and 50% increase in the momentum estimate. The estimated outflow properties indicate that the outflow is capable of dispersing the parent core within the typical lifetime of the embedded phase of a low-mass protostar and that it is responsible for a core-to-star efficiency of 1/4 to 1/3. We find that the outflow cavity wall is composed of multiple shells associated with a series of jet bow-shock events. Within about 3000 au of the protostar the {sup 13}CO and C{sup 18}O emission trace a circumstellar envelope with both rotation and infall motions, which we compare with a simple analytic model. The CS (2–1) emission reveals tentative evidence of a slowly moving rotating outflow, which we suggest is entrained not only poloidally but also toroidally by a disk wind that is launched from relatively large radii from the source.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2017

STRUCTURE, PROPAGATION, AND EXPANSION OF A CME-DRIVEN SHOCK IN THE HELIOSPHERE: A REVISIT OF THE 2012 JULY 23 EXTREME STORM

We examine the structure, propagation, and expansion of the shock associated with the 2012 July 23 extreme coronal mass ejection. Characteristics of the shock determined from multi-point imaging observations are compared to in situ measurements at different locations and a complex radio type II burst, which according to our definition has multiple branches that may not all be fundamental-harmonic related. The white-light shock signature can be modeled reasonably well by a spherical structure and was expanding backward even on the opposite side of the Sun. The expansion of the shock, which was roughly self-similar after the first ∼1.5 hr from launch, largely dominated over the translation of the shock center for the time period of interest. Our study also suggests a bow-shock morphology around the nose at later times due to the outward motion in combination with the expansion of the ejecta. The shock decayed and failed to reach Mercury in the backward direction and the Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory B ( STEREO B ) and Venus in the lateral directions, as indicated by the imaging and in situ observations. The shock in the nose direction, however, may have persisted to the far outer heliosphere, with predicted impact on Dawn around 06:00 UT on July 25 and on Jupiter around 23:30 UT on July 27 by a magnetohydrodynamic model. The type II burst shows properties generally consistent with the spatial/temporal variations of the shock deduced from imaging and in situ observations. In particular, the low-frequency bands agree well with the in situ measurements of a very low density ahead of the shock at STEREO A .

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2026

r -process Nucleosynthesis from Hyperaccreting Neutron Stars in Common Envelopes

We investigate nuclear reactions and feedback in hyperaccreting neutron star environments, considering accretion rates in the range 0.3–3 × 10 4 M ⊙ yr −1 , typical of short-period compact-object binaries in common envelopes. Our models account for weak reactions, neutrino energy loss, nuclear energy release, pair production, degenerate equations of state, and general relativistic hydrodynamics. Depending on the accretion rates, these systems can develop both proton- and neutron-rich atmospheres with strong convective instabilities linking the neutrino sphere to the outgoing accretion shock inside the radiation trapping zone. Convection drives nucleons through multiple heating and cooling cycles, with photodisintegration dominating during the heating phase and heavy element synthesis during the cooling phase, ejecting material with abundances that depend on the accretion rate and depth of the final decompression trajectory. The turbulent nature of convective currents is conducive to creating a wide range of nuclear products through a variety of effects, including nuclear statistical equilibrium freeze-out and the r-, p-, and γ-processes. We also observe a novel multistep process in reheated trajectories, consisting of proton-capture and photodissociation reactions operating on r-process seeds, producing overall neutron-deficient isotopes. A significant amount of infalling gas experiences high entropy and short (millisecond) freeze-out timescales capable of making r-process elements with high overabundances through a disequilibrium effect between neutrons and α-particles that does not require an excess of neutrons.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
NASA NTRS1988

Wave processes in scramjet thrust generation

The investigation explores the steady, supersonic expansion and compression wave processes involved in generating thrust from a combustion jet in a two-dimensional scramjet. Two types of thrust generating wave are produced by the jet. The first is the injection compression waves associated with injection and combustion of the fuel, and the second is the expansion interaction waves associated with interaction between the exhaust nozzle expansion and the jet. Analysis shows that the strength of a wave is not modified by crossing the jet, which implies that, with a given flow configuration, the jets in a multiple jet combustion array produce thrust independently of one another. Shock tunnel experiments with hydrogen fuel and three simple scramjet configurations are used to identify the two types of waves, to confirm the effect on a wave of crossing the jet, and to demonstrate the influence of the basic, fuel-off flow configuration on the effects produced by the waves.

Stalker, R. J.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Discovery of new objects in the Orion nebula on HST images - Shocks, compact sources, and protoplanetary disks

We have reduced and analyzed a set of narrow-band HST images of a portion of M42 south of the Trapezium. Many new emission-line sources were found, some quite long but so narrow that they are not seen on ground-based images. These include thin shells which are high-ionization shocks. The structure around Orion HH 3 is resolved into multiple components. Slit spectroscopy data establish the high expansion velocities of all these regions. The other objects seen are compact sources. Although some had been detected in VLA surveys and several had been seen from the ground optically, the new images show previously undetected structure and clearly establish that most are protoplanetary disks, which are neutral disks surrounding low-mass pre-main-sequence stars and are ionized from the outside by Theta sup 1 C and Theta sup 2 A Ori.

O'Dell, C. R.↗
DOE OSTI2012

ANOMALOUS TRANSPORT OF HIGH-ENERGY COSMIC RAYS IN GALACTIC SUPERBUBBLES. I. NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS

We present a simple continuous-time random-walk model for the transport of energetic particles accelerated by a collection of supernova explosions in a galactic superbubble, developed to simulate and highlight signatures of anomalous transport on the particles' evolution and their spectra in a multi-shock context. We assume standard diffusive shock acceleration (DSA) theory for each shock encounter. The superbubble (an OB stars association) is idealized as a heterogeneous region of particle sources and sinks bounded by a random surface. The model is based on two coupled stochastic differential equations and is applied for protons and alpha particles. Using characteristic values for a typical bubble, our simulations suggest that acceleration and transport in the bubble may be sub-diffusive. In addition, a spectral break in the particles' evolution and spectra is evident located at Almost-Equal-To 10{sup 15} eV for protons and Almost-Equal-To 3 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 15} eV for alphas. Our simulations are consistent with a bubble's mean magnetic field strength of Almost-Equal-To 1 {mu}G and a shock separation distance {approx}0.1 Multiplication-Sign the characteristic radius of the bubble. The simulations imply that the diffusion coefficient (for the elementary shock acceleration process) is {approx}< 10{sup 27} cm{sup 2} s{sup -1} at 1 GeV/c. While the sub-diffusive transport is readily attributed to the stochastic nature of the acceleration time according to DSA theory, the spectral break appears to be an artifact of transport in a finite medium. These simulations point to a new and intriguing phenomenon associated with the statistical nature of collective acceleration of high-energy cosmic rays in galactic superbubbles.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2012

Diagnosing radiative shocks from deuterium and tritium implosions on NIF

During the recent ignition tuning campaign at the National Ignition Facility, layered cryogenic deuterium and tritium capsules were imploded via x-ray driven ablation. The hardened gated x-ray imager diagnostic temporally and spatially resolves the x-ray emission from the core of the capsule implosion at energies above {approx}8 keV. On multiple implosions, {approx}200-400 ps after peak compression a spherically expanding radiative shock has been observed. This paper describes the methods used to characterize the radial profile and rate of expansion of the shock induced x-ray emission.

07 ISOTOPE AND RADIATION SOURCES↗
DOE OSTI2019

Wave speeds in single and polycrystalline copper

A novel technique was used to determine shock speeds in polycrystalline and single crystal copper that makes use of the ready availability of multiple velocimetry channels. Making use of a “top hat” design and five points of photonic Doppler velocimetry (PDV), which allows for accurate timing to determine wave arrival times, shock impacts were executed on [100], [110], and [111] single crystal copper, as well as polycrystalline copper at impact velocities ranging from 300 to 600 m/s. The data show that at these low velocities the [111] and [110] single crystal orientations have different shock speeds than the polycrystalline and [100] single crystal, but those differences may be within the apparent accuracy of the experimental technique.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2012

TURBULENT MOLECULAR GAS AND STAR FORMATION IN THE SHOCKED INTERGALACTIC MEDIUM OF STEPHAN'S QUINTET

The Stephan's Quintet (hereafter SQ) is a template source to study the impact of galaxies interaction on the physical state and energetics of their gas. We report on IRAM single-dish CO observations of the SQ compact group of galaxies. These observations follow up the Spitzer discovery of bright mid-IR H{sub 2} rotational line emission (L(H{sub 2}) Almost-Equal-To 10{sup 35} W) from warm (10{sup 2-3} K) molecular gas, associated with a 30 kpc long shock between a galaxy, NGC 7318b, and NGC 7319's tidal arm. We detect CO(1-0), (2-1) and (3-2) line emission in the inter-galactic medium (IGM) with complex profiles, spanning a velocity range of Almost-Equal-To 1000 km s{sup -1}. The spectra exhibit the pre-shock recession velocities of the two colliding gas systems (5700 and 6700 km s{sup -1}), but also intermediate velocities. This shows that much of the molecular gas has formed out of diffuse gas accelerated by the galaxy-tidal arm collision. CO emission is also detected in a bridge feature that connects the shock to the Seyfert member of the group, NGC 7319, and in the northern star forming region, SQ-A, where a new velocity component is identified at 6900 km s{sup -1}, in addition to the two velocity components already known. Assuming a Galactic CO(1-0) emission to H{sub 2} mass conversion factor, a total H{sub 2} mass of Almost-Equal-To 5 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 9} M{sub Sun} is detected in the shock. The ratio between the warm H{sub 2} mass derived from Spitzer spectroscopy, and the H{sub 2} mass derived from CO fluxes is Almost-Equal-To 0.3 in the IGM of SQ, which is 10--100 times higher than in star-forming galaxies. The molecular gas carries a large fraction of the gas kinetic energy involved in the collision, meaning that this energy has not been thermalized yet. The kinetic energy of the H{sub 2} gas derived from CO observations is comparable to that of the warm H{sub 2} gas from Spitzer spectroscopy, and a factor Almost-Equal-To 5 greater than the thermal energy of the hot plasma heated by the collision. In the shock and bridge regions, the ratio of the PAH-to-CO surface luminosities, commonly used to measure the star formation efficiency of the H{sub 2} gas, is lower (up to a factor 75) than the observed values in star-forming galaxies. We suggest that turbulence fed by the galaxy-tidal arm collision maintains a high heating rate within the H{sub 2} gas. This interpretation implies that the velocity dispersion on the scale of giant molecular clouds in SQ is one order of magnitude larger than the Galactic value. The high amplitude of turbulence may explain why this gas is not forming stars efficiently.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2012

DETECTION OF POWERFUL MID-IR H{sub 2} EMISSION IN THE BRIDGE BETWEEN THE TAFFY GALAXIES

We report the detection of strong, resolved emission from warm H{sub 2} in the Taffy galaxies and bridge. Relative to the continuum and faint polyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) emission, the H{sub 2} emission is the strongest in the connecting bridge, approaching L(H{sub 2})/L(PAH 8 {mu}m) = 0.1 between the two galaxies, where the purely rotational lines of H{sub 2} dominate the mid-infrared spectrum in a way very reminiscent of the group-wide shock in the interacting group Stephan's Quintet (SQ). The surface brightness in the 0-0 S(0) and S(1) H{sub 2} lines in the bridge is more than twice that observed at the center of the SQ shock. We observe a warm H{sub 2} mass of 4.2 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 8} M{sub Sun} in the bridge, but taking into account the unobserved bridge area, the total warm mass is likely to be twice this value. We use excitation diagrams to characterize the warm molecular gas, finding an average surface mass of {approx}5 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 6} M{sub Sun} kpc{sup -2} and typical excitation temperatures of 150-175 K. H{sub 2} emission is also seen in the galaxy disks, although there the emission is more consistent with normal star-forming galaxies. We investigate several possible heating mechanisms for the bridge gas but favor the conversion of kinetic energy from the head-on collision via turbulence and shocks as the main heating source. Since the cooling time for the warm H{sub 2} is short ({approx}5000 yr), shocks must be permeating the molecular gas in the bridge region in order to continue heating the H{sub 2}.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
NASA NTRS2024

Acceleration and Release of Solar Energetic Particles Associated with a Coronal Shock on 2021 September 28 Observed by Four Spacecraft

The main driver of the acceleration of solar energetic particles (SEPs) is believed to be shocks driven by coronal mass ejections. Extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) waves are thought to be the propagating footprint of the shock on the solar surface. One of the key questions in SEP research is the timing of the SEP release with respect to the time when the EUV wave magnetically connects with an observer. Taking advantage of close-to-the-Sun measurements by Parker Solar Probe (PSP) and Solar Orbiter (SolO), we investigate an SEP event that occurred on 2021 September 28 and was observed at different locations by SolO, PSP, STEREO-A, and near-Earth spacecraft. During this time, SolO, PSP, and STEREO-A shared similar nominal magnetic footpoints relative to the SEP source region but were at different heliocentric distances. We find that the SEP release times estimated at these four locations were delayed compared to the times when the EUV wave intercepted the footpoints of the nominal magnetic fields connecting to each spacecraft by around 30–60 minutes. Combining observations in multiple wavelengths of radio, white light, and EUV with a geometrical shock model, we analyze the associated shock properties and discuss the acceleration and delayed release processes of SEPs in this event as well as the accuracy and limitations of using EUV waves to determine the SEP acceleration and release times.

Solar coronal mass ejections↗