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DOE OSTI2020

Climate Influences on Capacity Expansion Planning with Application to the Western U.S

Electric power system planners utilize a variety of planning tools to inform decisions concerning generation and transmission additions to the electric grid, the need for operational changes, and to evaluate potential stressors on the system. Numerous factors contribute to the planning process including projected fuel and technology costs, policy and load profiles. There is also a growing recognition of the interdependency of the electric grid with other natural and engineered systems. Here we explore how future climate change and hydropower operability might influence decisions related to electricity capacity expansion planning and operations. To do so we assemble a multi-model framework. Specifically, water resource modeling is used to simulate climate impacts on future water supply for thermoelectric and hydropower generation. Separately, temperature impacts on electricity load are evaluated. Together, these climate factors spatially constrain a capacity expansion model that projects generation and transmission additions to the grid. The projected new capacity-builds are then evaluated on their operations, reliability, and cost under average and extreme climate conditions using production cost modeling. This coupled framework is demonstrated on the electric grid in the Western U.S., supporting capacity expansion planning by WECC, the North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) regional entity responsible for reliability assurance of the Western Interconnection. This region was selected in part because the West is unique in that it has high potential for renewable penetrations and is experiencing large retirements/displacements of baseload resources, primarily coal, leading to possible operational challenges in terms of changing resource mix and the need for resource flexibility. Toward this challenge, planning scenarios encompass a range of alternative energy, climate and drought futures. In this context we explore answers to two strategic questions: 1) How does changing climate influence electricity expansion planning (generation and transmission) and future operations, including type and capacity of new builds, system reliability, cost and environmental impacts? 2) How does the representation of hydropower in the modeling framework influence the evaluation of bulk power system operations? Results indicate that climate has a measurable influence on recommendations concerning the capacity, type and location of new generation and transmission additions, with up to 17 GW additional capacity needed by 2038 to meet peak loads (~6.6% increase over capacity-builds based on historical climate). The extent of additional infrastructure needs is strongly influenced by future water availability for hydropower and the potential deployment of demand response technologies. Systems designed for future climate conditions were found to maintain high system reliability under a range of electricity and water availability scenarios (including significant drought), with minimal system curtailments. Additional capacity needs due to higher load tend to increase cumulative 20-year investment and operating costs by $\$$5-$\$$17 billion and generation costs increase by 9 to 19%. Finally, changing the representation of hydropower flexibility has a relatively small influence on capacity expansion in the Western Interconnection through 2038, but hydropower flexibility impacts generation costs to a similar extent as climate.

13 HYDRO ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2026

Cyclic moisture reactivation of calcium sorbents for long duration thermochemical energy storage

The transition to a flexible and reliable energy infrastructure, using electro-thermal energy generation technologies such as geothermal, concentrated solar power, and nuclear, usually demands simultaneous advancement of thermal energy storage (TES) to support on-demand electricity generation and industrial applications while mitigating the inherent intermittency of renewable energy sources and power outages from direct energy generation. Among TES technologies, thermochemical energy storage (TCES) based on calcium looping emerges as a compelling high-power energy storage candidate due to its high reaction enthalpy, compatibility with elevated operating temperatures, and abundance of low-cost materials. However, the long-term durability of calcium-based sorbents for TCES is hindered by surface sintering and particle aggregation, leading to performance degradation over repeated thermal cycles. This study explores a moisture hydration-based strategy to regenerate a degraded calcium sorbent and mitigate performance degradation for long duration TCES. The addition of moisture transforms calcium oxide into calcium hydroxide and produces intercalation water layers, associated with a regenerated surface area and reduced calcium oxide crystallite size. Both these effects are beneficial in restoring the sorbents' reactivity for carbonization. Additionally, an optimized hydration-assisted reactivation protocol balances the recovered energy storage capacity with heating penalty required for moisture removal from hydrated samples, resulting in an enhanced energy storage capacity up to 176% compared to benchmark sorbents that undergo cycling without reactivation after 60 cycles. In conclusion, these results highlight the potential of hydration-assisted reactivation to enhance the long-term performance of TCES, providing an effective pathway to advancing electro-thermal storage technologies.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2021

Economic Analysis of a Novel Thermal Energy Storage System Using Solid Particles for Grid Electricity Storage: Preprint

As renewable power generation becomes the mainstream new-built energy source, energy storage will become an indispensable need to complement the uncertainty of renewable resources to firm the power supply. When phasing out fossil-fuel power plants to meet the carbon neutral utility target in the midcentury around the world, large capacity of energy storage will be needed to provide reliable grid power. The integration of renewable power and storage to support future carbon-free utility has several significant and positive impacts including expanding the renewable generation into the grid, improving the peak-load response, and balancing the electricity supply and demand. Long-duration energy storage (10–100 hours duration) can potentially complement the reduction of fossil-fuel baseload generation that otherwise would risk grid security when a large portion of grid power comes from variable renewable sources. Current energy storage methods based on pumped storage hydropower or batteries have many limitations. Thermal energy storage (TES) has unique advantages in scale and siting flexibility to provide grid-scale storage capacity. A particle-based TES system has promising cost and performance for the future growing energy storage needs. This paper introduces the system and components required for the particle TES to be technically and economically competitive. A technoeconomic analysis based on preliminary component designs and performance shows that the particle TES integrated with an efficient air-Brayton combined cycle power system can provide power for several days by low-cost, high-performance storage cycles. It addresses grid storage needs by enabling large-scale grid integration of intermittent renewables like wind and solar, thereby increasing their grid value. The design specifications and cost estimations of major components in a commercial scale system are presented in this paper. The cost model provides insights for further development and cost comparison with competing technologies.

27 ARPA - Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy↗

DOE OSTI2021

Cost Analysis Framework for Comparing AC and DC Design Alternatives for Building Electrical Distribution Systems

In recent years, in response to the changing nature of building load, direct current (DC) distribution systems for buildings have been proposed as alternatives to traditional alternating current (AC) systems. DC distribution offers a closer match to the types of loads and generation sources found in modern buildings, the majority of which use DC electricity internally either natively or as a power conditioning stage. The proposed benefits of DC distribution compared to AC distribution within buildings include higher efficiency, lower installation cost, lower operating cost, higher reliability, improved communication and control, and simplicity. Most recent DC distribution research has focused on quantifying the efficiency advantage of DC distribution over AC distribution. However, energy savings alone do not guarantee cost savings; a more complete cost accounting is required to establish financial benefit. This report provides a framework for cost analysis and comparison of building electrical distribution systems, including common variants for both AC and DC distribution systems. The framework includes all major cost categories, including up-front costs (capital, installation labor, soft costs) and long-term costs (energy, operations and maintenance).

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2021

Using Qualified On-Site Nuclear Power Plant Simulators in Human Factors Validations of Control Room Upgrades

Existing commercial nuclear power plants (NPPs) are valuable assets in the infrastructure portfolio of the United States (U.S.) because they safely and reliably generate about 1/5th of all the electricity used. The instrumentation and control (I&C) systems in commercial NPPs are the ‘eyes and ears' of the operator, allowing operators to maintain situation awareness, thereby allowing the plant to operate safely and efficiently for all phases of operation. Because the I&C systems in NPPs are still mostly based on analog technologies, which are reliable but not especially cost-effective, upgrading the existing I&C in com-mercial NPPs to new digital I&C is very important. Furthermore, simulators and simulation are critical human factors engineering tools for this I&C modernization work. NPP control room simulators are essential test beds to simulate normal, abnormal, and emergency operations that allow human factors researchers to safely and realistically evaluate early design phase prototypes of the upgraded digital I&C, and validate final as-built digital I&C systems that have been modernized deployed in NPPs. This paper describes research performed using qualified on-site NPP simulators to perform human factors validations of digital I&C control room upgrades.

99 GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS↗

DOE OSTI2025

Grid Architecture Mapping to Understand Transformation (GAMUT): Concept Definition

The electric power system is undergoing significant transformation driven by changes in the generation mix, increasing reliance on information and communication technologies, evolving customer expectations, and a dynamic cyber-physical environment. To address these challenges, substantial investments will be made over the next decade to create a flexible, affordable, secure, reliable, and resilient electric system. In response, the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Electricity is developing knowledge management tools aimed at systematically documenting technology pilots and demonstration projects. This initiative seeks to improve understanding of operating contexts, planning steps, and integration requirements for innovative grid technologies. The Department of Energy project leverages Grid Architecture principles to collect and organize insights into the interdependencies, requirements, and capabilities of various grid solutions. By employing a systematic approach, the project aims to perform a feasibility study for the development of a software tool that will support stakeholders, including regulators, transmission and distribution system operators, distributed energy resources aggregators, and technology providers. By offering a systematic, software-based framework to document technologies, understand their benefits and impacts, and inform deployment strategies, the proposed Grid Architecture Mapping to Understand Transformation (GAMUT) Tool is intended to reduce costs, enhance decision-making, and facilitate scaling and effective deployment of new technologies. The feasibility study will evaluate the technical and financial viability of the GAMUT Tool, identifying stakeholder needs and assessing risks and mitigation strategies. Ultimately, the GAMUT team aims to develop an initial minimal viable product, followed by staged improvements, to aid in the modernization of the electric grid, contributing to a more sustainable and resilient energy future.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2024

Probabilistic Grid Reliability Analysis with Energy Storage Systems

SAND2025-12025O The Probabilistic Grid Reliability Analysis with Energy Storage Systems (ProGRESS) software tool is an open-source tool for assessing the resource adequacy of the evolving electric power grid integrated with energy storage systems (ESS). This tool uses a simulation engine to create diverse scenarios that test the limits of the modern power grid consisting of a high-volume ESS and variable energy resources (VER). Sandia National Laboratories is a multimission laboratory managed and operated by National Technology & Engineering Solutions of Sandia, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of Honeywell International Inc., for the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration under contract DE-NA0003525.

Nguyen, Tu↗

DOE OSTI2023

Investigating Net-Zero Carbon Microgrids for DOE’s National Laboratory Facilities: A Case Study for Idaho National Laboratory

The concept of net-zero carbon microgrids (NZMs) has received significant interest in recent years considering its promises to provide both energy resilience and carbon reduction. This paper investigates the practical constraints of NZM deployment in a government facility, exploring various cases revolving around the objectives of cost, emission, and energy resilience. The technoeconomic results for one of the Idaho National Laboratory (INL) facilities are discussed to identify a practical and economic approach to achieve the net-zero target considering both present and future scenarios. The study shows the carbon reduction, resilience, and economic success of net-zero initiatives are tied directly to the energy portfolio of its electricity provider. The NZMs typically required a hybrid mix of renewable generation and storage assets to maximize onsite clean generation and to provide reliable power during grid outages. Besides supporting the ongoing net-zero effort at INL, this work also provides a framework that can be directly used in other facilities aspiring to become a net zero in the future.

24 - POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2021

Resilience of electric utilities during the COVID-19 pandemic in the framework of the CIGRE definition of Power System Resilience

Resilience is a vital concept in engineering, business, and natural sciences, and is a measure of the ability of an entity to withstand High Impact Low Probability (HILP) events. During the COVID-19 pandemic, which started in late 2019/early 2020, power system utilities around the globe have responded in effective and efficient ways to enhance the resilience of their organisations, both in terms of real-time operations and prudent management of its infrastructure, in order to continue their mandate in providing reliable supply to meet customer demands. Here, this paper presents the CIGRE definition for power system resilience, established by the C4.47 Working Group in 2018, and demonstrates the application of resilience-oriented thinking within the electrical sector. The response and recovery efforts are described, with respect to the key actionable measures integral to the power system resilience definition, taken before, during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. A practical conceptual framework is also presented for thinking about resilience in terms of three key components of resilience strategies: organisational, infrastructure and operational resilience. The paper also discusses the different strategies adopted in response to COVID-19, based on the C4.47 members’ experiences during the pandemic. Finally, a case study is presented, which proves the effectiveness of a set of response measures, using graph theory and the characteristics of the staff-asset interactions.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2026

Robotics for Energy Infrastructure Construction on Earth and Beyond: Pilot Study Exploring Level 3-4 Semi-Autonomous Installation of a Reduced-Scale Photovoltaic Power Plant Prototype: Preprint

There is a growing need to build energy infrastructure at massive scale on both Earth and in space. On Earth, increasing electricity demand from applications such as AI data centers is driving rapid expansion of power systems, while in space, long-duration missions such as lunar operations require reliable and resilient energy infrastructure that can be deployed quickly. These needs outpace the capabilities of conventional construction methods. Robotic construction offers a path to faster, lower-cost, and more consistent deployment, yet most existing approaches focus on automating individual tasks rather than end-to-end assembly. The Industrialized Construction Innovation (ICI) team at the National Laboratory of the Rockies (NLR), in collaboration with the Colorado School of Mines, has been investigating robotics and automation strategies for rapid end-to-end energy infrastructure construction. This paper presents a pilot study demonstrating level 3-4 semi-autonomous, end-to-end robotic assembly of a reduced-scale photovoltaic power plant prototype under terrestrial conditions. The approach combines hardware redesign of photovoltaic components for robotic compatibility, discrete-event and physics-based robotic simulations in synthetic environments, and sim-to-real deployment to execute end-to-end robotic assembly of[NM1.1][NM1.2] tracking components, structural members, photovoltaic modules, and embedded electrical connections. The pilot identifies key limitations like tolerance management, perception and localization, end effector capability, fastening methods, and multi-physics simulation fidelity, that must be addressed to enable end-to-end robotic assembly of full-scale energy infrastructure. The study highlights how these insights inform scaling strategies for terrestrial energy infrastructure and adaptation to unstructured and extreme environments, including off-world scenarios such as robotic assembly of vertical tall lunar towers.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Sensor enabled data-driven predictive analytics for modeling and control with high penetration of DERs in distribution systems

The electric power grid is undergoing a tremendous transformation due to the increasing penetration of renewable energy resources beginning with wind and more recently with the distributed energy resources (DERs) such as solar and battery storage. DERs have dramatically changed the role of the distribution systems in the overall power grid, and they are expected to contribute a significant portion of power generation in the future. If current trends for DERs continue, system operation and control will need to change dramatically for improved grid reliability and resiliency. As renewable resources increase in penetration, new and challenging operational, planning, and design problems are expected to emerge. Some of the key challenges that arise in the planning and operation of the future grid are: 1) Quantifying the impact of high DER penetration in distribution systems on bulk grid behavior over multiple time scales. 2) Identifying whether a particular DER configuration/settings have a large impact on the overall grid behavior. These challenges can be addressed in an offline manner using detailed T&D grid models and they can also be addressed in an online manner using sensor measurements. In particular, the advancement and planned growth in sensor technology in power grid over various voltage levels provide us with a unique opportunity to tackle these challenges from a data analytic perspective without needing detailed T&D grid models. A few questions that naturally arise when addressing the challenges from DERs using sensor data are: 1) How can we use limited sensor measurements to monitor & control voltage stability and small signal stability of the bulk system? 2) How can we ensure that the developed data analytic methods are robust to data availability and quality issues? 3) How can we compute the developed analytics in a scalable manner using streaming measurements? In this project, we addressed the aforementioned challenges arising from DERs and answered the questions raised above on how to effectively use the sensor measurements to enhance the reliability and performance of the electric grid. Thus, the overarching goal of this project is to develop effective reduced/representative system models from data that make the computational complexity sufficiently manageable so as to be useful to simulate, analyze, and even control complex non-linear power systems dynamics with large penetrations of DERs. In order to achieve the objective, the project team established a four-fold technical approach 1) Formulated a combined transmission-distribution co-simulation framework for data generation and validation, 2) Derived reduced/representative models of power systems based on data-driven methods for efficient computation and appropriate representation of system behavior, 3) Developed data driven characterization of power system behavior based on transfer operator theory, machine learning and optimization for model estimation, 4) Incorporated a scalable data management and processing architecture using distributed Kafka streaming applications that coordinate input data streams to the developed data analytics. The key accomplishments of the project are: 1) Development of a scalable multi-timescale T&D co-simulation framework (both for steady state and for dynamic co-simulation) using commercial solvers (PSSE and GridLAB-D). The steady-state T&D co-simulation interface is shared with our industry partner (PJM). 2) A structured reduced order dynamic model of distribution systems that can represent partial motor stalling along with a systematic procedure to derive the model parameters. 3) A PMU based online method to monitor, localize and mitigate fault-induced delayed voltage recovery using DER reactive support and load control in distribution systems. 4) Development of linear operator based robust methodologies for dynamic state estimation, uncertainty quantification, system identification and trajectory prediction for power system dynamics. 5) An adaptive damping control for utilizing wind energy resources to provide oscillation damping and system stability. 6) Implementation of Kafka-based framework for efficient processing of streaming data using Linux-based local virtual environment.

DER integration↗

DOE OSTI2020

Retail Hydrogen Station Reliability Status and Advances

One of the most vital emerging commercial markets for hydrogen is fuel cell-powered mobility including cars, trucks, and buses. These vehicles are refueled via a network of hydrogen fueling stations, with the highest number of U.S. stations being in California. The numbers of both fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) and hydrogen stations have increased in the last two years, with anecdotal information from FCEV drivers indicating that station reliability is hurting the consumer acceptability of FCEV technologies. Therefore, this study benchmarks the current state of hydrogen station reliability in practice and presents on-going research that is investigating the failures that are contribute to hydrogen station reliability issues. This is accomplished with an analysis of operation, safety, and maintenance data from hydrogen stations and fuel cell electric vehicles to benchmark the maintenance and failure of hydrogen stations and their components. This analysis, of over 5,000 station maintenance events, presents the leading maintenance categories and failure rates, and is a prerequisite to the development of data-driven reliability improvement plans. We present a reliability growth analysis and on-going research into the root causes of failure for dispensers, a particularly failure-prone subsystem.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2023

Component Assessment of the Electric Transmission Grid to Hurricanes

The increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events from climate change necessitates understanding impacts on critical infrastructure, particularly electrical transmission grids. One of the foundational concepts of a grid's resilience is its robustness to extreme weather events, such as hurricanes. Resilience of the electric grid to high wind speeds is predicated upon the location and physical characteristics of the system components. Previous modeling assessments of electric grid failure were done at the systems level with assumptions on location and type of specific components. To facilitate more explicit adaptation metrics, accurate component-level information is needed. In this study, we build and utilize a data set of location, physical characteristics, and age of transmission structures for nine counties in the Florida Panhandle. These component characteristics were then simulated for failure under a variety of scenarios using fragility curves. Eight hurricanes were modeled using Hazus from the Federal Emergency Management Administration and the resulting impact to the network was assessed. The network was generated using the transmission lines and towers, showing increasing impacts to network efficiency with larger storms. Although modern transmission structures are built under the more stringent extreme wind loading construction standards, the prevalence of older, wooden transmission structures throughout the region poses a substantial risk to reliable electricity transmission during tropical cyclone events from the Gulf of Mexico.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2020

An Operational Resilience Metric for Modern Power Distribution Systems

The electrical power system is the backbone of our nations critical infrastructure. It has been designed to withstand single component failures based on a set of reliability metrics which have proven acceptable during normal operating conditions. However, in recent years there has been an increasing frequency of extreme weather events. Many have resulted in widespread long-term power outages, proving reliability metrics alone do not provide adequate energy security. As a result, researchers have focused their efforts on a new set of metrics based on the concept of resilience to ensure efficient operation of power systems during extreme events. A resilient system has the ability to resist, adapt, and recover from disruptions. Therefore, resilience has demonstrated itself as a promising concept for currently faced challenges in power distribution systems. In this work, we propose a real-time resilience metric for modern power distribution systems. The metric is an aggregation of the controllable assets adaptive capacity, or their temporal flexibility in real and reactive power. This metric gives information to the magnitude and duration of a disturbance which the system can respond to without having to drop loads or have stability issues in voltage or frequency. We demonstrate the impact to resilience in a case study under normal operation and during a power contingency on a microgrid. In the future, this information can be used by operators to make more informed decisions based on system resilience in an effort to prevent power outages.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2020

Electrical Energy Storage Data Submission Guidelines

Energy storage technologies are positioned to play a substantial role in power delivery systems. They are being touted as an effective new resource to maintain reliability and allow for increased penetration of renewable energy. However, due to their relative infancy, there is a lack of knowledge on how these resources truly operate over time. Data analysis can help ascertain the operational and performance characteristics of these emerging technologies. Rigorous testing and data analysis are important for all stakeholders to ensure a safe, reliable system that performs predictably on a macro level. Standardizing testing and analysis approaches to verifying the performance of energy storage devices, equipment, and systems when integrating them into the grid will improve the understanding and benefit of energy storage over time from technical and economic vantage points. Demonstrating the life-cycle value and capabilities of energy storage systems begins with the data the provider supplies for analysis. After review of energy storage data received from several providers, it has become clear that some of these data are inconsistent and incomplete, raising the question of their efficacy for robust analysis. This report reviews and proposes general guidelines such as sampling rates and data points that providers must supply for robust data analysis to take place. Consistent guidelines are the basis of the proper protocol and ensuing standards to (a) reduce the time it takes data to reach those who are providing analysis; (b) allow them to better understand the energy storage installations; and (c) enable them to provide high-quality analysis of the installations. This report is intended to serve as a starting point for what data points should be provided when monitoring. As battery technologies continue to advance and the industry expands, this report will be updated to remain current.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2023

Cost and Performance Baseline for Fossil Energy Plants, Volume 5: Natural Gas Electricity Generating Units for Flexible Operation

To address the data needs of energy system designers and to serve as a baseline for research and development, NETL has carried out a study to characterize the flexibility attributes - both performance and cost - of nine common commercial natural gas-fueled electricity generating units. The intermittent output of low-carbon, renewable power generation sources such as wind and solar create challenges to grid stability and reliability. Fossil-fueled power generation technologies are currently used to provide reliable, on-demand power during periods of reduced renewable output. Dispatchable generators must be able to accommodate increasing renewable generation as the nation pursues the Administration’s target of a decarbonized energy sector by 2035. As energy system experts seek to identify least-cost approaches to decarbonization, accurate cost and performance data characterizing dispatchable fossil generators that operate flexibly, at capacity factors that have been declining over time, and are needed to inform models for capacity expansion. Furthermore, these technologies continue to be a significant source of carbon dioxide emissions, providing the impetus for research and development, including the advancement and potential incorporation of carbon capture technologies. This study characterizes the cost and performance of select state-of-the-art natural gas-fueled power generation technologies: reciprocating internal combustion engines (RICE), simple cycle combustion turbines, and natural gas combined cycles (NGCC). An emphasis is placed on flexibility characteristics, such as part-load heat rate, ramp rates, start up times, and start up costs.

03 NATURAL GAS↗

DOE OSTI2021

Ensemble Learning, Prediction and Li-Ion Cell Charging Cycle Divergence

In recent years, the pervasive use of lithium ion (Li-ion) batteries in applications such as cell phones, laptop computers, electric vehicles, and grid energy storage systems has prompted the development of specialized battery management systems (BMS). The primary goal of a BMS is to maintain a reliable and safe battery power source while maximizing the calendar life and performance of the cells. To maintain safe operation, a BMS should be programmed to minimize degradation and prevent damage to a Li-ion cell, which can lead to thermal runaway. Cell damage can occur over time if a BMS is not properly configured to avoid overcharging and discharging. To prevent cell damage, efficient and accurate cell charging cycle characteristics algorithms must be employed. In this paper, computationally efficient and accurate ensemble learning algorithms capable of detecting Li-ion cell charging irregularities are described. Additionally, it is shown using machine and deep learning that it is possible to accurately and efficiently detect when a cell has experienced thermal and electrical stress due to cell overcharging by measuring charging cycle divergence.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2022

Emerging Trends and Systemic Issues Influencing Today’s U.S. Electric Grid

With increasing shifts from vertically integrated to horizontally structured operations and from centralized to distributed electric power delivery, today’s electric power grid (the “grid”) operators and designers face the challenge of creating an architecture that accommodates a host of diverse requirements. The grid’s modes of operation must address concerns of reliability and stability, new deployments of renewable energy sources, threats from cyber-attacks and natural disasters, and increasingly distributed system operations. Grid modernization calls for a reliable, affordable, sustainable, agile, secure, and resilient grid. However, the modernization of the U.S. power grid is hampered by mounting complexity and diverging objectives from owners and operators and is consequently risky and fraught with potential missteps. Flawed architecture, design, and implementation will lead to stranded investments and lost opportunities. A principled approach to minimize risk and develop a robust grid of the future is to begin with a sound architecture for the grid to inform the design process. Architecture development starts with the context of influencing factors that provide constraints as well as driving goals. This report provides the context of emerging trends and cross-cutting systemic issues in the U.S. electric power grid and serves as a vital input for grid architecture development.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗