Search NASA⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search NASA

Results for “Eutectics”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 397 records · Page 22
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

MARVEL Guard Vessel System FEA and ASME Analysis

The INL is seeking to build the first microreactor in the United States, and the first advanced reactor in over 50 years. With the Microreactor Applications Research, Validation & EvaLuation (MARVEL) Project, this microreactor should be operational within a significantly faster timescale than has ever been seen in the nuclear industry. It uses two passive-convection loops, primarily Sodium Potassium eutectic (NaK), and Ga-In-Sn eutectic as an intermediate fluid. Due to the high reactivity of NaK, the primary coolant loop requires a secondary confinement boundary to prevent uncovering of the core in the event of a NaK leak. This secondary boundary is mostly accomplished through the addition of the Guard Vessel, which is a bucket-like metal containment, which is welded onto the primary boundary to maintain an inert gas environment and pressure

99 GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Final Design for Additional Thermal/Epithermal eXperiments (TEX) with Sodium Chloride Absorbers to Provide Validation Benchmarks for TerraPower

The first set of Thermal/Epithermal eXperiments (TEX) with chlorine absorbers (TEX-Cl) were executed in Q4FY24 and are in the process of being benchmarked for the ICSBEP. TEX-Cl builds upon the TEX-HEU baseline cases that were published in the 2022 International Criticality Safety Benchmark Evaluation Project (ICSBEP) Handbook. TEX-HEU, like TEX-Pu, was designed to be modular to allow for the incorporation of various absorbers and reflectors to test nuclear data and application case needs. For example, TEX-HEU with hafnium (TEX-Hf) utilizes hafnium plates as both absorbers and reflectors, depending on the tested configuration. A second set of chlorine experiments, dubbed More TEX-Cl, are laid out in this report to meet the needs of TerraPower for chlorine validation for their Molten Chloride Fast Reactor (MCFR) systems. TerraPower’s Molten Chloride Reactor Experiment (MCRE) and MCFR are fast molten salt reactors that utilize sodium chloride (NaCl) salt eutectics as the fuel and coolant. The MCRE eutectic is a mixture of NaCl and uranium trichloride (UCl 3 ). An abundant need for chlorine absorption validation has been expressed by multiple members of the community, including Y-12 (whose needs were addressed with the first set of experiments), LANL (whose needs were addressed with the Chlorine Worth Study (CWS)), TerraPower, institute de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire (IRSN), Savannah River Nuclear Solutions (SNRS), and others. Of the members who have expressed interest in this validation, most are interested in the fast neutron energy region, where the 35 Cl(n,p) reaction is most prominent. New 35 Cl(n,p) differential cross section measurements performed by LANL at LANCSE show substantial changes to the cross sections (Figure 1) and may be validated through these experiments as some configurations are optimally sensitive to this cross section.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Evaluating Lithium-Lead Mixtures for Increased Tritium Breeding in Fusion Energy Blanket Systems: Exploring the Impact of Composition and Temperature

This project investigates hypo- and hyper-eutectic liquid lithium-lead (PbLi) mixtures as a coolant in fusion blanket systems, with a focus on testing the compatibility of compositions with better tritium breeding ratios (TBR). The 12-month study concentrates on static corrosion experiments, comparing silicon carbide (SiC) corrosion rates in Li-rich and eutectic Li-Pb mixtures, and examining interactions between Mo and PbLi. The research seeks to determine the maximum operating temperatures for this material combination, acknowledging the balance between Li-Pb melting temperature and achievable TBR to unlock new opportunities for blanket design. This work lays the groundwork for future collaboration between Kyoto Fusioneering and Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL). Findings could enhance the TBR of fusion blanket designs, and impact fusion energy development by confirming material compatibility between different Li-Pb mixtures with SiC and Mo at higher temperatures, including at temperatures relevant for very high-temperature blankets (1,000 °C), which could enable higher electricity conversion efficiencies and commercial applications using process heat.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Influence of Carboxymethyl Cellulose as a Thickening Agent for Glauber’s Salt-Based Low Temperature PCM

This work is focused on a novel, promising low temperature phase change material (PCM), based on the eutectic Glauber’s salt composition. To allow phase transition within the refrigeration range of temperatures of +5 °C to +12 °C, combined with a high repeatability of melting–freezing processes, and minimized subcooling, the application of three variants of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (Na-CMC) with distinct molecular weights (700,000, 250,000, and 90,000) is considered. The primary objective is to optimize the stabilization of this eutectic PCM formulation, while maintaining the desired enthalpy level. Preparation methods are refined to ensure repeatability in mixing components, thereby optimizing performance and stability. Additionally, the influence of Na-CMC molecular weight on stabilization is examined through differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), T-history, and rheology tests. The PCM formulation of interest builds upon prior research in which borax, ammonium chloride, and potassium chloride were used as additives to sodium sulfate decahydrate (Glauber’s salt), prioritizing environmentally responsible materials. The results reveal that CMC with molecular weights of 250 kg/mol and 90 kg/mol effectively stabilize the PCM without phase separation issues, slowing crystallization kinetics. Conversely, CMC of 700 kg/mol proved ineffective due to the disruption of gel formation at its low gel point, hindering higher concentrations. Calculations of ionic concentration indicate higher Na ion content in PCM stabilized with 90 kg/mol CMC, suggesting increased ionic interactions and gel strength. A tradeoff is discovered between the faster crystallization in lower molecular weight CMC and the higher concentration required, which increases the amount of inert material that does not participate in the phase transition. After thermal cycling, the best formulation had a latent heat of 130 J/g with no supercooling, demonstrating excellent performance. This work advances PCM’s reliability as a thermal energy storage solution for diverse applications and highlights the complex relationship between Na-CMC molecular weight and PCM stabilization.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Elucidating the corrosion mechanism of commercial Ni-based Superalloys in UCl3 containing-chloride Molten Salt Systems

Molten salt reactors (MSRs) have gained renewed interest, providing several advantages over their predecessors, including the capability to consume spent fuels, enhancing the environmental sustainability of the uranium fuel cycle. For example, molten chloride fast reactors (MCFRs) can reach criticality with molten chloride spent fuel containing high concentrations of impurities, such as actinide products like uranium chloride (UCl3). However, the redox potential of chloride molten salt fuels may change in the presence of these impurities, dictating their corrosivity and in turn the corrosion performance of structural components, such as those constructed from nickel (Ni)-based alloys. The purpose of this investigation is to assess the extent of corrosion of Ni-based alloy, Inconel 617, when exposed to UCl3-LiCl-KCl eutectic salt. Inconel 617 one of only six structural materials that are fully qualified by the American Society for Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code for high-temperature nuclear reactor components, making it a technologically mature material to consider for constructing MCFRs. Inconel 617 specimens were submerged in a static LiCl-KCl-UCl3 eutectic salt mixture heated at 700 C for 1000 h under an inert atmosphere. Upon completion, the extent of corrosion was analyzed through a multi-modal characterization approach spanning the engineering to nanoscale, employing computed tomography, focused-ion beam, and transmission electron microscopy techniques. Results from this investigation will enhance our understanding of property-to-performance relationships of candidate structural materials for MSRs with respect to corrosion resistance and interactions between the salt and alloy interface.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Activity coefficient acquisition with thermodynamics–informed active learning for phase diagram construction

This work explores the use of thermodynamics-informed Gaussian processes (GPs) and active learning (AL) to model activity coefficients and construct phase diagrams. Relying on synthetic data generated from an excess Gibbs energy model, GPs were found to accurately describe the activity coefficients of several binary mixtures across large composition and temperature ranges. Moreover, GPs could estimate their own uncertainty and identify composition/temperature regions where activity coefficient data provide the most information to the models. This was leveraged to build AL algorithms targeted at modeling phase equilibria. In many cases, a single active-learning-acquired data point was sufficient to describe the phase diagrams studied. Lastly, the ability of AL to greatly reduce the amount of data needed to obtain accurate models was further verified on experimental case studies, namely individual ion activity coefficients, the solid–liquid and vapor–liquid equilibrium of deep eutectic solvents, and phase equilibria in ternary mixtures.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Kinetic Investigation by Batch Processing of Film Growth during the Electrodeposition of Titanium from Ethaline

Titanium electrodeposition as a technological advance has been out of reach due to the poor film quality obtained when using previously developed methods. This study shows that the electrodeposition of Ti is possible and feasible from the deep eutectic solvent ethaline. Moreover, this study shows through batch analysis that this deposition has temperature-dependent aspects that alter the film deposition kinetics upon modest heating. This ultraviolet–visible spectroscopic study is highlighting the more facile reduction of Ti 4+ to Ti 3+ and then to Ti 2+ at elevated temperatures. Understanding the underlying kinetics of electrodeposition opens up new venues for the application of this important metal.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Microstructural refinement in ultrasonically modified A356 aluminum castings

Two A356 aluminum alloys (Al-Si-Mg), one with 0.09 wt.% Fe and one with 0.91 wt.% Fe, were cast in a graphite mold with the simultaneous application of local ultrasonic intensification to refine the as-cast microstructure. Ultrasonication during casting transformed the morphology of primary Al grains from dendritic (~140-290 microns in size) to globular (~33-36 microns in size). The alloy with high Fe exhibited globular grains at distances up to 45 mm away from the ultrasound probe, while the alloy with low Fe exhibited globular grains at distances only up to 6 mm away from the ultrasound probe. Near the location of the ultrasound probe (< 2 mm away), a second non-dendritic microstructural morphology was observed with fine aluminum grains (~9-25 microns in size). This unique fine-grained morphology has not been previously reported, contains a greater concentration of Si relative to the globular microstructure, and may be a large, fully eutectic region. Ultrasonication during casting also transformed the morphology of the ß-Al 5 FeSi phase particles (which are deleterious to the strength and ductility of the alloy) in the high Fe alloy from needle-like to rectangular, which could enable the greater use of secondary Al alloys. Thermodynamic simulations conducted to calculate the solidification paths of the two alloys studied predict that the ß-Al 5 FeSi phase begins to form earlier in the alloy with high Fe. Finally, data suggest that the ß-Al 5 FeSi phase (which is more abundant in alloys with high Fe content) may enhance ultrasonically-induced grain refinement.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Applications of biomass-derived solvents in biomass pretreatment – Strategies, challenges, and prospects

We report biomass pretreatment is considered a key step in the 2nd generation biofuel production from lignocellulosic biomass. Research on conventional biomass pretreatment solvents has mainly been focused on carbohydrate conversion efficiency, while their hazardousness and/or carbon intensity were not comprehensively considered. Recent sustainability issues request further consideration for eco-friendly and sustainable alternatives like biomass-derived solvents. Carbohydrate and lignin-derived solvents have been proposed and investigated as green alternatives in many biomass processes. In this review, the applications of different types of biomass pretreatment solvents, including organic, ionic liquid, and deep eutectic solvents, are thoroughly discussed. The role of water as a co-solvent in these pretreatment processes is also reviewed. Finally, current research challenges and prospects of utilizing biomass-derived pretreatment solvents for pretreatment are discussed. Given bioethanol's market potential and increasing public awareness about environmental concerns, it will be a priority adopting sustainable and green biomass pretreatment solvents in biorefinery.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Green pretreatment strategies for enhanced microbial lipid fermentation and synergistic high-quality lignin recovery for next-generation integrated biorefineries

Miscanthus × giganteus (Mxg) is a warm-season perennial grass being commercialized as a biomass feedstock for temperate farms. Three process strategies were compared for converting Mxg into single-cell oil and extracted lignin intermediates, as hydrothermal (HT) processing and two natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES), ChCl:LA (choline chloride:lactic acid) and ChCl:Gly (choline chloride:glycerol). Pretreatments were performed at 10% and 50% solids loading at 140 °C, 2 h; HT: 190 °C, 10 min. Enzymatic hydrolysates, generated at 10% solids using washed and unwashed biomass, were evaluated for microbial lipid production. Maximum glucose conversions from washed biomass reached 83.5% (ChCl:LA), 52.7% (ChCl:Gly), and 74.0% (HT). Remarkably, NADES-derived hydrolysates effectively replaced refined sugars for the cultivation of the oleaginous yeast Rhodotorula toruloides, achieving ∼51% higher biomass (OD 90.7) and lipid titers of 19.36 g/L within 45 h using a two-stage fermentation strategy. Lipid contents ranged from 34.5–44.5% dry weight, demonstrating reduced reliance on purified sugars. Beyond carbohydrate valorization, ChCl:LA pretreatment enabled high-purity lignin recovery (>89%) in a lignin-first strategy. Structural analyses (2D-HSQC and ³¹P NMR) showed syringyl (78.15%), guaiacyl (15.15%), and p-hydroxyphenyl (6.41%) units, with higher phenolic hydroxyl content (0.91 mmol/g) and a lower S/G ratio (0.19) than HT lignin (0.87 mmol/g, S/G 0.22). These attributes favor downstream lignin depolymerization into low-molecular-weight aromatics. Overall, NADES pretreatment simultaneously enhances microbial lipid yields and recovers high-quality lignin, advancing the economic feasibility of renewable diesel and sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) production from bioenergy crops within an integrated biorefinery framework.

2D HSQC↗
DOE OSTI2024

Physics-informed machine learning to predict solvatochromic parameters of designer solvents with case studies in CO 2 and lignin dissolution

The polarity of solvents plays a critical role in various research applications, particularly in their solubilities. Polarity is conveniently characterized by the Kamlet-Taft parameters that is, the hydrogen bonding acidity (α), the basicity (β), and the polarizability (π*). Obtaining Kamlet-Taft parameters is very important for designer solvents, namely ionic liquids (ILs) and deep eutectic solvents (DESs). However, given the unlimited theoretical number of combinations of ionic pairs in ILs and hydrogen-bond donor/acceptor pairs in DESs, experimental determination of their Kamlet-Taft parameters is impractical. To address this, the present study developed two different machine learning (ML) algorithms to predict Kamlet-Taft parameters for designer solvents using quantum chemically derived input features. The ML models developed in the present study showed accurate predictions with high R 2 and low RMSE values. Further, in the context of present interest in the circular bioeconomy, the relationship between the basicities and acidities of designer solvents and their ability to dissolve lignin and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is discussed. Our method thus guides the design of effective solvents with optimal Kamlet-Taft parameter values dissolving and converting biomass and CO 2 into valuable chemicals.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

One-pot generation of lignin microspheres and digestible substrate with a polyol-DES pretreatment in high solid loading

Previous lignin microspheres (LMS) preparation needs multiple steps with very low yield and high cost. Herein, we developed a high-solid deep eutectic solvent (DES) pretreatment for an effective lignin fractionation and enzymatic saccharification of moso bamboo under mild temperature (110 °C) with high-solid loading. Lignin was significantly removed from the plant cell wall, and cellulose properties (e.g., crystallinity and degree of polymerization) were also altered during the pretreatment. As a result, the enzymatic digestibility of the pretreated bamboo was dramatically increased. Uniform micro-spherical lignin was directly produced from the pretreatment system, and its particle size could be regulated by controlling the solid loadings and pretreatment temperatures. The lignin microspheres formation mechanism was investigated by analyzing the lignin's size distribution, molecular weight distribution, chemical structure, and hydrophobicity. The DES showed excellent recyclability, and the recycled DES could still remove 42.78% lignin even after 7th circulation associated with 100% glucan saccharification. Further, the mass balance based on 1000 g biomass showed that 196.28 g LMS was directly recovered, which exhibited a high RhB adsorption. Besides, 404.91 g glucose and 36.67 g xylose were obtained after the enzymatic saccharification process. Specifically, GAPI analysis exhibited a near total green and yellow portions of the pictogram, indicating our DES process was green enough to make this biorefinery sustainable. Overall, the proposed DES generated synergistic productions of digestible solid and LMS which could contribute to establish a green and sustainable biorefinery sequence with diverse outputs in one pot.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

Capturing the softening in T91 steel annealed with molten LBE through interfacial gradient plasticity

In order to study the effect of annealing with molten lead–bismuth eutectic alloy (mLBE) on the mechanical properties of T91 steel, micropillar compression tests were analyzed through the consideration of mechanical interface energy terms within gradient plasticity. The stress–strain curves of the micropillars showed significant stochastic effects, characterized by a different elastic and plastic behavior response for each pillar. Among the various pillars, some exhibited a similar trilinear behavior. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of these specimens demonstrated localized slip deformation and slip planes after compression, while transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images showed the presence of a severe slip zone along the random grain boundaries (RGBs), indicating that the GBs played a dominant role in the deformation/slip. By employing interfacial gradient plasticity that can explicitly account for the presence of GBs, the trilinear response was captured, allowing for the determination of the mechanical interface parameter. As anticipated the pillars which underwent severe slip at the GBs had a lower value for the mechanical interface parameter. Finally, annealing with mLBE can, therefore, in some cases result in softening in the overall stress–strain, as it lowers the mechanical interface energy of GBs.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Electrodeposited nickel coatings for exceptional corrosion mitigation in industrial grade molten chloride salts for concentrating solar power

Molten chloride salt eutectics are attractive candidates for use as thermal energy storage media and heat transfer fluids in generation-three concentrating solar thermal power (Gen3 CSP) plants. However, corrosion of alloys in molten chloride salts, especially at high temperatures, is an extremely challenging problem that studies focus on lower temperatures, shorter durations, or analytical grade, and high-purity, salts. To date, there has been no study on corrosion or corrosion mitigation in an industrial-grade salt at a high temperature such as 750 °C. To alleviate this knowledge gap, the study presents new multiscale fractal-textured Ni coatings on various alloy surfaces for effective corrosion mitigation at 750 °C in molten chloride salts. Using the electrodeposition method, durable double-layer textured coatings were formed on stainless steel alloys (SS316, SS310, and SS347) and In800H. The corrosion performance of the coatings is investigated in both analytical-grade purity and, for the first time, practically relevant industrial-grade chloride salts. Ni-coated ferrous alloys showed an exceptionally reduced corrosion rate in the range of 350–480 μm/y in analytical-grade salts, and between 450 and 490 μm/y in purified industrial-grade salts at 750 °C. Ni coatings on ferrous alloys reduced corrosion rates by as much as 70% compared to uncoated surfaces and were comparable to the expensive Ha230 alloy with a high Ni content. As a result, by the use of innovative fractal corrosion mitigation coatings, for the first time, low-cost structural alloys are rendered viable for use with industrial-grade chloride salts, which is profoundly beneficial in practical systems.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Promising Method of Sm–Co Magnet Reprocessing in Alkali Chloride Melts

Developing new, efficient methods for samarium and cobalt recovery from scraps/rejects and swarf at Sm–Co magnet manufacturing sites during shaping and finishing is an important task in terms of meeting their growing demand. In this work, the reaction of oxygen with a solution of samarium and cobalt chlorides in a LiCl–KCl eutectic melt was studied at 400–600 °C to explore possible methods for the separation and recovery of samarium and cobalt from these waste products. The pyrochemical reaction resulted in the formation and precipitation of samarium oxychloride, while the cobalt remained in the melt in a soluble chloride form. The effect of temperature and the amount of oxygen passed through the melt (oxygen-to-samarium molar ratio) on the course of the reaction were studied. Kinetic parameters of the oxygen with samarium chloride reaction were determined.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

Dynamics of Glyceline and Interactions of Constituents: A Multitechnique NMR Study

In this work, the dynamics of the organic components of the deep eutectic solvent (DES) glyceline are analyzed using an array of complementary nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) methods. Fast-Field Cycling 1 H relaxometry, Pulsed Field Gradient diffusion, Nuclear Overhauser Effect Spectroscopy (NOESY), 13 C NMR relaxation and pressure dependent NMR experiments are deployed to sample a range of frequencies and modes of motion of the glycerol and choline components of the DES. Generally, translational and rotational diffusion of glycerol are more rapid than those of choline while short range rotational motions observed from 13 C relaxation indicate slow local motion of glycerol at low choline chloride (ChCl) content. The rates of glycerol and choline local motions become more similar at higher ChCl. This result taken together with pressure dependent NMR studies show that the addition of ChCl makes it easier to disrupt glycerol packing. Finally, a relatively slow hydroxyl H-exchange process between glycerol and choline protons is deduced from the data. Consistent with this, NOESY results indicate relatively little direct H-bonding between glycerol and choline. These results suggest that the glycerol H-bonding network is disrupted as choline is added, but primarily in regions where there is intimate mixing of the two components. Thus, the local dynamics of most of the glycerol, resembles that of pure glycerol until substantial choline chloride is present.

13C NMR relaxation↗
DOE OSTI2022

Polymer-Stabilized Liquid Metal Nanoparticles as a Scalable Current Collector Engineering Approach Enabling Lithium Metal Anodes

Dendrites and dead lithium formation over prolonged cycling have long been challenges that hinder the safe implementation of metallic Li anodes. In this study, we employ polymer-stabilized liquid metal nanoparticles (LM-P NPs) of eutectic gallium indium (EGaIn) to create uniform Li nucleation sites enabling homogeneous lithium electrodeposition. Block copolymers of poly(ethylene oxide) and poly(acrylic acid) (PEO-b-PAA) were grafted onto the EGaIn surface, forming stabilized, well-dispersed NPs. Using a scalable spray coating approach, LM-P NPs were fabricated on copper current collectors, providing lithiophilic PEO sites and interactive carboxyl groups to guide Li deposition. The Li-EGaIn alloying process greatly reduced the Li + diffusion barrier, enabling fast Li transport through the coating layer, resulting in decreased nucleation overpotential. Therefore, about five times lower Li nucleation overpotential was obtained on the LM-P modified Cu with an optimal composition of the polymers than the bare Cu substrates. DFT computations was used to reveal the binding properties between the LM-P layer and Li. Due to the regulated Li plating/stripping process, as-obtained 30 μm Li anodes paired with LiNi 0.8 Co 0.1 Mn 0.1 O 2 (NCM8 11 ) with a negative/positive electrode capacity (N/P) ratio ~ 10 exhibited stable cycling performance at 0.5C for over 250 cycles, with an average Coulombic efficiency of 99.55%. Ultrathin Li (1 μm) anodes with an N/P ratio ~ 0.6 were also demonstrated in Li|LiFePO 4 cells, which examined the stabilization of Li by LM-P NPs and monitored practical loadings of Li anodes that are close to anode-free systems.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Transforming CO 2 to Porous Carbon as a High-Performing Sodium-Ion Battery Anode via Electrochemical Reduction in Molten Carbonates

The prevalence of sodium over lithium prompts exploration of sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) as a viable alternative to lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Hard carbon has emerged as a promising anode material for SIBs, yet its synthesis poses sustainability challenges and emits pollutants. Here, in this study, we introduce CO 2 -derived porous carbon (graphitic and amorphous) as an anode for SIBs via electrochemical reduction of CO 2 in a molten eutectic carbonate salt at a lower temperature that yields materials with controlled microstructure, morphology, and porosity conducive to energy storage. Our CO 2 -derived carbon demonstrates remarkable specific capacity, superior rate capability, and stable cycling performance as a SIB anode. This innovative strategy harnesses waste CO 2 toward advancing SIB energy technology.

CO2-derived carbon↗