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NASA NTRS2016

DiskDetective.org: Finding Homes for Exoplanets Through Citizen Science

The Disk Detective project is scouring the data archive from the WISE all-sky survey to find new debris disks and protoplanetary disks-the dusty dens where exoplanets form and dwell. Volunteers on this citizen science website have already performed 1.6 million classifications, searching a catalog 8x the size of any published WISE survey. We follow up candidates using ground based telescopes in California, Arizona, Chile, Hawaii, and Argentina. We ultimately expect to increase the pool of known debris disks by approx. 400 and triple the solid angle in clusters of young stars examined with WISE, providing a unique new catalog of isolated disk stars, key planet-search targets, and candidate advanced extraterrestrial civilizations. Come to this talk to hear the news about our latest dusty discoveries and the trials and the ecstasy of launching a new citizen science project. Please bring your laptop or smartphone if you like!

debris disks↗
NASA NTRS2016

Laboratory Analysis of Silicate Stardust Grains of Diverse Stellar Origins

Silicate dust is ubiquitous in a multitude of environments across the cosmos, including evolved oxygen-rich stars, interstellar space, protoplanetary disks, comets, and asteroids. The identification of bona fide silicate stardust grains in meteorites, interplanetary dust particles, micrometeorites, and dust returned from comet Wild 2 by the Stardust spacecraft has revolutionized the study of stars, interstellar space, and the history of dust in the Galaxy. These stardust grains have exotic isotopic compositions that are records of nucleosynthetic processes that occurred in the depths of their now extinct parent stars. Moreover, the chemical compositions and mineralogies of silicate stardust are consequences of the physical and chemical nature of the stellar condensation environment, as well as secondary alteration processes that can occur in interstellar space, the solar nebula, and on the asteroid or comet parent body in which they were incorporated. In this talk I will discuss our use of advanced nano-scale instrumentation in the laboratory to conduct coordinated isotopic, chemical, and mineralogical analyses of silicate stardust grains from AGB stars, supernovae, and novae. By analyzing the isotopic compositions of multiple elements in individual grains, we have been able to constrain their stellar sources, explore stellar nucleosynthetic and mixing processes, and Galactic chemical evolution. Through our mineralogical studies, we have found these presolar silicate grains to have wide-ranging chemical and mineral characteristics. This diversity is the result of primary condensation characteristics and in some cases secondary features imparted by alteration in space and in our Solar System. The laboratory analysis of actual samples of stars directly complements astronomical observations and astrophysical models and offers an unprecedented level of detail into the lifecycles of dust in the Galaxy.

Nguyen, Ann N.↗
NASA NTRS2016

High-Nickel Iron-Sulfides in Anhydrous, Gems-Rich CP IDPs

Chondritic porous interplanetary dust particles (CP IDPs) that were not severly heated during atmospheric deceleration are the best preserved samples of the solids that condensed from the Solar protoplanetary disk, as well as pre-Solar grains thatr survived incorporation into the disk, currently available for laboratory analysis [1]. These CP IDPs never experienced the aqueous and/or thermal processing, gravitational compaction, and shock effects that overprinted the record of Solar nebula processes in meteorites.

FLynn, G. J.↗
NASA NTRS2016

The Formation of Nucleobases from the Irradiation of Purine in Astophysical Ices and Comparisons with Meteorites.

N-heterocycles have been identified in meteorites and their extraterrestrial origins are suggested by isotopic ratio measurements. Although small N- heterocycles have not been detected in the interstellar medium (ISM), recent experiments in our lab have shown that the irradiation of the aromatic molecules like benzene (C6H6) and naphthalene (C10H8) in mixed molecular ices leads to the formation of O- and N-heterocyclic molecules. Among the class of N-heterocycles are the nucleobases, which are of astrobiological interest because they are the information bearing units of DNA and RNA. Nucleobases have been detected in meteorites [3-5], with isotopic signatures that are also consistent with an extraterrestrial origin. Three of the biologically relevant nucleobases (uracil, cytosine, and guanine) have a pyrimidine core structure while the remaining two (adenine and guanine) possess a purine core. Previous experiments in our lab have demonstrated that all of the bio-logical nucleobases (and numerous other molecules) with a pyrimidine core structure can be produced by irradiating pyrimidine in mixed molecular ices of several compositions [6-8]. In this work, we study the formation of purine-based molecules, including the nucleobases adenine, and guanine, from the ultraviolet (UV) irradiation of purine in ices consisting mixtures of H2O and NH3 at low temperature. The experiments are designed to simulate the astrophysical conditions under which these species may be formed in dense molecular clouds, protoplanetary disks, or on the surfaces of icy bodies in planetary systems.

Astrochemistry↗
NASA NTRS2017

A Case for Nebula Scale Mixing Between Non-Carbonaceous and Carbonaceous Chondrite Reservoirs: Testing the Grand Tack Model with Chromium Isotopic Composition of Almahata Sitta Stone 91A

There is an increasing number of Cr-O-Ti isotope studies that show solar system materials are divided into two main populations, one carbonaceous chondrite (CC)-like and the other is non-carbonaceous (NC)-like, with minimal mixing attributed to a gap opened in the protoplanetary disk due to Jupiter's formation. The Grand Tack model suggests there should be large-scale mixing between S- and C-type asteroids, an idea supported by our recent work on chondrule (Delta)17O-ε54Cr isotope systematics. The Almahata Sitta (AhS) meteorite provides a unique opportunity to test the Grand Tack model. The meteorite fell to Earth in October 2008 and has been linked to the asteroid 2008 TC3 which was discovered just prior to the fall of the AhS stones. The AhS meteorite is composed of up to 700 individual pieces with approx.140 of those pieces having some geochemical and/or petrologic studies. Almahata Sitta is an anomalous polymict ureilite with other meteorite components, including enstatite, ordinary, and carbonaceous chondrites with an approximate abundance of 70% ureilites and 30% chondrites. This observation has lead to the suggestion that TC3 2008 was a loosely aggregated rubble pile-like asteroid with the non-ureilite sample clasts within the rubble-pile. Due to the loosely-aggregated nature of AhS, the object disintegrated during atmospheric entry resulting in the weakly held clasts falling predominantly as individual stones in the AhS collection area. However, recent work has identified one sample of AhS, sample 91A, which may represent two different lithologies coexisting within a single stone. The predominate lithology type in 91A appears to be that of a C2 chondrite based on mineralogy but also contains olivine, pyroxene, and albite that have ureilite-like compositions. Previous Cr isotope investigations into AhS stones are sparse and what data is available show nearly uniform isotopic composition similar to that of typical ureilites with negative ε54Cr values.

Sanborn, M. E.↗
NASA NTRS2017

Interstellar and Solar Nebula Materials in Cometary Dust

Laboratory studies of cometary dust collected in the stratosphere and returned from comet 81P/Wild 2 by the Stardust spacecraft have revealed ancient interstellar grains and molecular cloud organic matter that record a range of astrophysical processes and the first steps of planetary formation. Presolar materials are rarer meteorites owing to high temperature processing in the solar nebula and hydrothermal alteration on their asteroidal parent bodies. The greater preservation of presolar materials in comets is attributed to their low accretion temperatures and limited planetary processing. Yet, comets also contain a large complement of high temperature materials from the inner Solar System. Owing to the limited and biased sampling of comets to date, the proportions of interstellar and Solar System materials within them remains highly uncertain. Interstellar materials are identified by coordinated isotopic, mineralogical, and chemical measurements at the scale of individual grains. Chondritic porous interplanetary dust particles (CP IDPs) that likely derive from comets are made up of 0.1 - 10 micron-sized silicates, Fe-Ni-sulfides, oxides, and other phases bound by organic material. As much as 1% of the silicates are interstellar grains that have exotic isotopic compositions imparted by nucleosynthetic processes in their parent stars. Crystalline silicates in CP IDPs dominantly have normal isotopic compositions and probably formed in the Solar System. 81P samples include isotopically normal refractory minerals that resemble Ca-Al rich inclusions and chondrules common in meteorites. The origins of sub-micron amorphous silicates in IDPs are not certain, but at least a few % of them are interstellar grains. The remainder have isotopic compositions consistent with Solar System origins and elemental compositions that are inconsistent with interstellar grain properties, thus favoring formation in the solar nebula [4]. The organic component in comets and primitive meteorites has large enrichments in D/H and N-15/N-14 relative to terrestrial materials. These isotopic signatures are probably due to low temperature chemical processes in cold molecular clouds or the outermost reaches of the protoplanetary disk. The greatest isotopic anomalies are found in sub-micron organic nanoglobules that show chemical signatures of interstellar chemistry. The observation that cometary dust is mostly composed of isotopically normal minerals within isotopically anomalous organic matter is difficult to reconcile with the formation models of each component. The mineral component likely formed in high temperature processes in the inner Solar System, while the organic fraction shows isotopic and chemical signatures of formation near 10 K. Studying more primitive remnants of the Solar System starting materials would help in resolving this paradox. Comets formed across a vast expanse of the outer disk under differing thermal and collisional regimes, and some are likely to be better preserved than others. Finding truly pristine aggregates of presolar materials may require return of a pristine sample of comet nucleus material.

Messenger, Scott↗
NASA NTRS2017

Utilizing Stable Isotopes and Isotopic Anomalies to Study Early Solar System Formation Processes

Chondritic meteorites contain a diversity of particle components, i.e., chondrules and calcium-, aluminum-rich refractory inclusions (CAIs), that have survived since the formation of the Solar System. The chemical and isotopic compositions of these materials provide a record of the conditions present in the protoplanetary disk where they formed and can aid our understanding of the processes and reservoirs in which solids formed in the solar nebula, an important step leading to the accretion of planetesimals. Isotopic anomalies associated with nucleosynthetic processes are observed in these discrete materials, and can be compared to astronomical observations and astrophysical formation models of stars and more recently proplyds. The existence and size of these isotopic anomalies are typically thought to reflect a significant state of isotopic heterogeneity in the earliest Solar System, likely left over from molecular cloud heterogeneities on the grain scale, but some could also be due to late stellar injection. The homogenization of these isotopic anomalies towards planetary values can be used to track the efficiency and timescales of disk wide mixing,

Simon, Justin↗
NASA NTRS2017

PHYS: Division of Physical Chemistry 258 - Properties and Origins of Cometary and Asteroidal Organic Matter Delivered to the Early Earth

Comets and asteroids may have contributed much of the Earth's water and organic matter. The Earth accretes approximately 4x10(exp 7) Kg of dust and meteorites from these sources every year. The least altered meteorites contain complex assemblages of organic compounds and abundant hydrated minerals. These carbonaceous chondrite meteorites probably derive from asteroids that underwent hydrothermal processing within the first few million years after their accretion. Meteorite organics show isotopic and chemical signatures of low-T ion-molecule and grain-surface chemistry and photolysis of icy grains that occurred in cold molecular clouds and the outer protoplanetary disk. These signatures have been overprinted by aqueously mediated chemistry in asteroid parent bodies, forming amino acids and other prebiotic molecules. Comets are much richer in organic matter but it is less well characterized. Comet dust collected in the stratosphere shows larger H and N isotopic anomalies than most meteorites, suggesting better preservation of primordial organics. Rosetta studies of comet 67P coma dust find complex organic matter that may be related to the macromolecular material that dominates the organic inventory of primitive meteorites. The exogenous organic material accreting on Earth throughout its history is made up of thousands of molecular species formed in diverse processes ranging from circumstellar outflows to chemistry at near absolute zero in dark cloud cores and the formative environment within minor planets. NASA and JAXA are currently flying sample return missions to primitive, potentially organic-rich asteroids. The OSIRIS-REx and Hayabusa2 missions will map their target asteroids, Bennu and Ryugu, in detail and return regolith samples to Earth. Laboratory analyses of these pristine asteroid samples will provide unprecedented views of asteroidal organic matter relatively free of terrestrial contamination within well determined geological context. Studies of extraterrestrial materials and returned samples are essential to understand the origins of Solar System organic material and the roles of comets and asteroids to providing the starting materials for the emergence of life.

Messenger, Scott↗
NASA NTRS2018

Applying the SOFIA Coordinate System to the HIRMES Instrument

The High-resolution Mid-infrared Spectrometer (HIRMES) will be in-flight aboard the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) in late 2019, which will allow for observations of the structure and evolution of protoplanetary disks. SOFIA has a different coordinate system from the system being used to build HIRMES and needs to be defined and applied to HIRMES. This is necessary because the first mirror, which is aiming the incoming light onto the slit wheel by allowing for tip and tilt adjustments, cannot rotate. Thus, the SOFIA coordinate system allows for this additional degree of freedom and allows for the slit wheel to be in line with the telescope. Using a laser radar, multiple measurements around the instrument were taken of tooling balls, which quantified an uncertainty with the measurements. Also, a laser radar was used to scan the entirety of the instrument. The center of the front flange was determined using the measurements and scans of the instrument, which was used to determine the origin of the SOFIA coordinate system and its uncertainty. By knowing the center of the front flange, an off-center, rotated coordinate system was created, matching the mechanics' schematics for the system. Going forward, this coordinate system will allow for continued alignment of the instrument in preparation for flight and for accurate measurements when aboard SOFIA.

Wraback, Elizabeth↗
NASA NTRS2018

SPRITE: NF4 Saturn Probe Mission

The giant planets in our solar system contain clues to the origin of the planets and the conditions that set up terrestrial planet formation. These will be key to also understanding exoplanet systems Comparative study of Giant Planet composition and structure maps gradients in time and space in our protoplanetary disk Jupiter will be well studied after Galileo/Juno, but which of its features (core size, circulation, etc.) are unique vs universal? Cassini will leave remaining knowledge gaps about Saturn that require in situ sampling and are needed to fit into the puzzle of solar system formation

planetary Science↗
NASA NTRS2018

Coordinated Analysis of Organic Matter in Primitive Meteorites

Carbonaceous chondrites (CC) preserve a diverse range of organic matter formed within cold interstellar environments, the solar nebula, and during subsequent parent body asteroidal processing. This organic matter maintains a unique geochemical and istopic record of organic evolution [1-4]. Bulk studies of organics within CC have revealed a complex array of organic species. However, bulk studies invariably involve solvent extraction, resulting in a loss of spatial context of the host mineral matrix [3, 5]. Correlated in situ chemical and isotopic studies suggest preservation of interstellar organics in the form of spherical, often hollow, micrometer sized organic nano-globules. Nanoglobules often exhibit significant delta 15N and delta D enrichments that imply formation through fractionation of ion-molecule reactions within cold molecular clouds and/or the outer protoplanetary disk [5]. In situ studies such as 6-8 are necessary to understand the organic evolutionary stages of nanoglobules and other components in the nebula and parent body [7]. We carried out coordinated in situ micrometer-scale chemical, mineralogical and isotopic studies of the Murchison (CM2), QUE 99177 (CR3), and Tagish Lake (C2 Ung) CC. These studies were performed using fluorescent microscopy, two-step laser mass spectrometry (microL2MS), NanoSIMS, and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) with Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDX). Comparative analysis of three different meteorites will help reveal the effects of parent body processes on the chemistry and isotopic composition of organic matter.

meteorites↗
NASA NTRS2017

Characterization of Si-Membrane TES Bolometer Arrays for the HIRMES Instrument

The High Resolution Mid-Infrared Spectrometer (HIRMES) instrument will fly onboard NASA's airborne Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) in 2019. HIRMES will provide astronomers with a unique observing window (25 122 µm) for exploring the evolution of protoplanetary disks into young solar systems, and the composition of our Solar System. There are two focal plane detector arrays for the instrument: a high-resolution (/ = 100,000) 8x16 detector array with a target noise-equivalent power, NEP 3x10-18 W/Hz; and a low-resolution (/ = 2,000 19,000) 16x64 detector array with a target NEP 2x10-17 W/Hz. The detectors for both of these arrays are superconducting Mo/Au bilayer transition edge sensor (TES) bolometers on thin suspended single-crystal silicon membranes. Here we present our characterization results for the detectors in both arrays, including measurements of thermal conductance with comparison to phonon transport models, saturation power, noise, and array uniformity.

Instrumentation and Photography↗
NASA NTRS2018

The Origins Space Telescope

The Universe has never been seen like this before. The window into the infrared opens only above Earth's atmosphere, and humanity has barely glimpsed outside. About half of the light emitted by stars, planets, and galaxies over the lifetime of the Universe emerges in the infrared. With an unparalleled sensitivity increase — up to a factor of 1,000 more than any previous or planned mission — the advance offered by the Origins Space Telescope (OST) is akin to that from the naked eye to humanity's first telescope, or from Galileo's first telescope to the first telescope in space. While key path-finding missions have glimpsed a rich infrared cosmos, extraordinary discovery space awaits; the time for a far-infrared revolution has begun.Are we alone or is life common in the Universe? OST will directly address this long-standing question by searching for signs of life in the atmospheres of potentially habitable terrestrial planets transiting M dwarf stars. How do planets become habitable? OST will trace the trail of cold water from the interstellar medium, through protoplanetary disks and into the outer reaches of our own Solar System. How do stars, galaxies, black holes and the elements of life form, from the cosmic dawn to today? With broad wavelength coverage and fast mapping speeds, OST will map millions of galaxies, simultaneously measuring star formation rates and black hole growth across cosmic time, peering deeper into the far reaches of the Universe than ever before.OST will be maintained at a temperature of 4 K, enabling its tremendous sensitivity gain, and will operate from 5 m to 600 m, encompassing the mid- and far-infrared. OST has two Mission Concepts: Concept 1 with a 9.1-m deployed off-axis primary, and Concept 2, described here, a non-deployed 5.9-m on-axis telescope with the equivalent collecting area of the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). Concept 2 includes four instruments with capabilities for imaging (large surveys and pointed), spectroscopy (survey and high-resolution modes) and polarimetry, as well as an instrument for high-precision spectroscopy of transiting exoplanets. Concept 2 is optimized for maximum science return and minimal complexity, and offers fast mapping (approximately 60 arcseconds per second). We describe here the three key science themes for OST and the basic mission specifications.

Battersby, Cara↗
NASA NTRS2019

Laboratory Astrophysics Studies of the Evolution of Organic Matter with the COSmIC Facility.

Understanding the origin of organic matter in astrophysical environments ranging from circumstellar (CS) outflows to diffuse and dense interstellar (IS) clouds to protoplanetary disks and planetary bodies has become a central objective in astrophysics. Experimental facilities dedicated to the formation and characterization of laboratory analogs generated under conditions relevant to the targeted environments have been developed in the past recent years. Recent advances achieved in laboratory astrophysics using COSmIC’s laboratory data in synergy with observational data will be presented. These results include the use of laboratory spectra to search for IS organic molecules and ions in astronomical spectra, the formation of laboratory analogs of CS and IS dust grains and planetary atmospheres aerosols from molecular precursors.

Salama, Farid↗
NASA NTRS2019

The New NASA Ames Infrared Optical Constant Facility. Determinations for Titan Aerosol-, and Exoplanet and Brown Dwarf Cloud Particle Analogs

Here we present a new optical constant facility developed at NASA Ames that will allow the determination of optical constants in the infrared of various materials, analogs of hazes and cloud particles in (exo)planet atmospheres and brown dwarfs. Our facility is composed of a Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometer continuously covering the Near-IR, mid-IR and Far-IR range (from 0.74 to 200 µm), coupled to variable angle transmittance and reflectance accessories that allow the characterization of the scattering properties of nonhomogeneous samples (laboratory planetary aerosol analogs, films, slabs of material, crystals, powders...) over a wide incidence and emittance angle range (0-90 degrees). This permits the angular light distribution in both transmission and reflection measurements to be characterized, enabling the determination of the complex indices of refraction, n and k, over the full NIR-FIR range via modeling of the laboratory observations. The resulting refractive indices are critical input parameters in radiative transfer models, exoplanet and brown dwarf cloud models, protoplanetary disk simulations and other models used for the interpretation of observational data from past, current and future (exo)planetary NASA missions. We will present preliminary data obtained on Titan aerosol analogs produced in the Titan Haze Simulation (THS) experiment on COSmIC, a unique experimental platform developed at NASA Ames that allows the simulation of Titan's complex atmospheric chemistry at Titan-like temperature (200 K). We will also introduce a new study of the optical properties of ammonium-bearing phosphates, potential cloud particles forming in temperate exoplanets and brown dwarfs.

Planetary Science↗
NASA NTRS2019

Revolutionizing our Understanding of the Solar System via Sample Return from Mercury

Data from Mariner 10, MESSENGER, and ground-based telescopic observations have facilitated great advancements towards understanding the geochemistry, geology, internal structure, exosphere, and magnetosphere of Mercury. However, there are critical science questions that can be only addressed via examination of a sample in Earth-based laboratories, where numerous highly sensitive analytical measurements are possible. Collecting a sample from the surface of Mercury and bringing it to Earth for in-depth analysis would allow for transformative Solar System science to be conducted, examining aspects of our Solar System such as the evolution of the protoplanetary disk, space weathering on airless bodies, the geochemical behavior of elements at extreme conditions, and the origin and distribution of volatiles across the terrestrial planets. Furthermore, our knowledge of Mercury’s differentiation and geochemical processes, chronology and geologic evolution, tectonism and geomechanical properties, and past and ongoing magnetism would be greatly advanced via analysis of a sample from Mercury. Although there are ample challenges and knowledge gaps associated with sample return from Mercury in terms of both spacecraft requirements and material requirements for curatorial facilities, a sample from the planet would be an invaluable scientific resource for generations to come, enabling the most sophisticated measurements to be brought to bear for decades and helping to truly unlock the mysteries of our Solar System.

Vander Kaaden, Kathleen E.↗
NASA NTRS2020

Aqueous Alteration in the Kuiper Belt: Evidence from Hydrated Interplanetary Dust Particles

Edgeworth-Kuiper belt objects (EKBOs) formed in the outer reaches of the protoplanetary disk and thus avoided much of the high tempera-ture processing experienced by bodies in the inner solar system. For this reason, they contain a wealth of information on the nature of nebular solids and the chemical conditions in the earliest solar system. Astronomical observations of EKBOs have been limited largely to the surface chemistry of the ices covering these small and difficult to observe bodies. The mineralogy of EKBO objects are poorly known, but clues regarding their mineralogical makeup come from studies of samples from short period comets (e.g. Wild2), and interplanetary dust particles (IDPs) produced by collisions in the Kuiper belt. Interplanetary dust particles from objects in the solar system (mainly comets and asteroids) spiral in to-wards the Sun under the influence of Poynting-Robertson (PR) drag forces and accumulate solar flare energetic particle tracks. Recent work has shown that the observed solar flare track densities (~1010-1011/sq.cm) in these IDPs are ~two orders of magnitude higher than expected if they were derived from main belt asteroids or Jupiter family comets and thus require an origin from outer solar system source bodies such as EKBOs. The track-rich IDPs include representatives from the two major groups of IDPs: the chondritic-porous, anhydrous IDPs and the chondritic-smooth, hydrated IDPs, although rare IDPs with mineralogies intermediate between these two groups are known. Here, we report on the mineralogy, composition, organic matter content, and isotopic characteristics of track-rich hydrated IDPs, and implications for aqueous alteration in outer solar system bodies.

Keller, L. P.↗
NASA NTRS2019

Introducing NASA Ames' New Infrared Optical Constant Facility. Determinations of Complex Refractive Indices for Titan Aerosol Analogs and Other Applications

A new optical constant facility has been developed at NASA Ames that will allow the determination of optical constants in the infrared of various materials, analogs of (exo)planetary hazes and cloud particles. Our facility is composed of a Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometer continuously covering the Near-IR to Far-IR range (from 0.74 to 200 μm), coupled to variable angle transmittance and reflectance accessories that allow the characterization of the scattering properties of non-homogeneous samples (laboratory (exo)planetary aerosol analogs, films, slabs of material, crystals, powders, etc.) over a wide incidence and emittance angle range (0-90 degrees). This new experimental setup allows the characterization of angular light distribution in both transmission and reflection measurements, and enables the determination of the complex indices of refraction, n and k, over the full NIR-FIR range via modeling of the laboratory measurements. The resulting refractive indices are critical input parameters in radiative transfer models, microphysical models, cloud models, protoplanetary disk simulations and other models used for the interpretation of observational data from past, current and future (exo)planetary NASA missions. Here we present a description of the facility along with the first determination of optical constants for Titan aerosol analogs produced in the Titan Haze Simulation (THS) experiment on COSmIC, a unique experimental setup developed at NASA Ames that allows the simulation of Titan’s complex atmospheric chemistry at Titan-like temperature (200 K). We also introduce a new study of the optical properties of ammonium-bearing phosphates, potential cloud particles forming in temperate exoplanets and brown dwarfs.

Sciamma-O'Brien, Ella M.↗