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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 397 records · Page 22
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS1948

Measurements on Compressor-Blade Lattices

At the end & 1940 an investigation of a guide-vane lattice for the compressor of a TL unit [NACA comment: Turbojet] was requested. The greatest possible Mach number had to be attained. The investigation was conducted with an annular lattice subjected to axial flow. A direct-current shunt motor with a useful output of 235 horsepower at en engine speed of 1800 qm was available for driving the necessary blower. In designing the blower the speed was set at 10,000 rpm. A gear box fran an armored car was used as gearing in which supplementary fresh oil lubrication was installed. The gear box was used to step up from low to high speeds. The blower that was designed is two stage. The hub-tip ratios are 0.79 to 0.82; the design pressure coefficient for each stage is 0.6 and the design flow coefficient is 0.4. The rotor dosimeter D sub a is 0.39 meters and the resulting peripheral speed is u sub a = 204 meters per second [NACA comment: Value corrected from the German]. The blower was entirely satisfactory. The construction of the test stand is shown in figure 1. The air flows in through an annular Inlet, which is used in the measurement of the quantity of air, and is deflected into an inward-pointing radial slot. A spiral motion is imparted to the air by a guide-vane installation manually adjustable as desired, which enables injection of the air, after it has been deflected from the radial direction to the axial direction, into the lattice being investigated at any desired angle.

Weinig, F.↗
NASA NTRS2017

Development of a Detailed Surface Chemistry Framework in DSMC

Many of the current direct simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) codes still employ only simple surface catalysis models. These include only basic mechanisms such as dissociation, recombination, and exchange reactions, without any provision for adsorption and finite rate kinetics. Incorporating finite rate chemistry at the surface is increasingly becoming a necessity for various applications such as high speed re-entry flows over thermal protection systems (TPS), micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), surface catalysis, etc. In the recent years, relatively few works have examined finite-rate surface reaction modeling using the DSMC method.In this work, a generalized finite-rate surface chemistry framework incorporating a comprehensive list of reaction mechanisms is developed and implemented into the DSMC solver SPARTA. The various mechanisms include adsorption, desorption, Langmuir-Hinshelwood (LH), Eley-Rideal (ER), Collision Induced (CI), condensation, sublimation, etc. The approach is to stochastically model the various competing reactions occurring on a set of active sites. Both gas-surface (e.g., ER, CI) and pure-surface (e.g., LH, desorption) reaction mechanisms are incorporated. The reaction mechanisms could also be catalytic or surface altering based on the participation of the bulk-phase species (e.g., bulk carbon atoms). Marschall and MacLean developed a general formulation in which multiple phases and surface sites are used and we adopt a similar convention in the current work. Microscopic parameters of reaction probabilities (for gas-surface reactions) and frequencies (for pure-surface reactions) that are require for DSMC are computed from the surface properties and macroscopic parameters such as rate constants, sticking coefficients, etc. The energy and angular distributions of the products are decided based on the reaction type and input parameters. Thus, the user has the capability to model various surface reactions via user-specified reaction rate constants, surface properties and parameters.

Gas↗
DOE OSTI2026

Public Reference Data for Megawatt-Scale Hydrogen Electrolysis - NLR Historical Solar PV

The U.S. Department of Energy and National Laboratory of the Rockies (NLR) demonstrate hydrogen electrolysis from variable sources, hydrogen compression and storage, and hydrogen fuel cell power production using megawatt-scale equipment at NLR’s Flatirons Campus as part of the Advanced Research on Integrated Energy Systems (ARIES) research platform. This dataset represents part of that effort and is intended for academic, national laboratory, industrial, and other stakeholders to plan, design, and validate models of megawatt-scale hydrogen technologies and diverse energy infrastructure nationwide. These data provide a baseline for how existing hydrogen electrolysis technologies perform when coupled with various energy technologies. Future datasets will demonstrate how existing hydrogen fuel cell technologies can provide controllable, dispatchable, and variable power output for artificial intelligence data centers and other variable loads. This dataset entry describes the behavior of a 1.25-MW proton exchange membrane MC250 electrolyzer system, manufactured by Nel Hydrogen , [1] when fed historical data generated by the 430-kW, fixed-axis solar photovoltaic (PV) array located at NLR’s Flatirons Campus. (While the electrolyzer balance of plant supports up to 2.5 MW of electrolysis, NLR only has a single 1.25-MW electrolysis stack.) Solar PV power output data for the 2020 calendar year were categorized on a daily basis by total energy generation and standard deviation. Each day was then ranked by these metrics, and the 25th, 50th, and 100th percentiles were selected. The 75th percentile day did not exhibit sufficient variability to make for a valuable experiment. A similar process was used for the related historical wind dataset . [2] The historical days in 2020 that represented these percentiles are Dec. 19, March 29, and May 4, respectively. The entire solar day’s power profile was then fed through the MC250 electrolyzer. Due to its length, the 100th percentile day experiment was split into two parts, and the final 3 hours of the solar day were not captured. These final 3 hours contained no spikes or dips of interest and simply represented a slow decay of input solar power. Also, a single timestamp (13:13:47 on Jan. 14, 2026) was lost in the hydrogen system supervisory control and data acquisition. Finally, during the 25th percentile experiment (solar day Dec. 19, 2020) data recording was lost from 11:00:13 to 11:14:45. The roughly 15 minutes of the solar profile were rerun at the end of the experiment and spliced into this time slot during post-processing. The electrolysis system controls hydrogen production by varying direct current applied to the stack, from a maximum of 3,000 A to a minimum safe operation of 300 A, or 10%. Because the current–voltage characteristic changes as the stack ages and efficiency degrades, the actual minimum safe operating power changes over time. The historical solar profiles were translated from power (kilowatts) to current (amperes) using a curve fit with calibration data and sent to the electrolyzer power supply at 1-Hz frequency. For more details on the statistical analysis process, see the slide deck “Public Reference Data for Megawatt-Scale Hydrogen Electrolysis: NLR Historical Solar PV Analysis and Profile Generation” accessible with this data entry. These datasets report relevant hydrogen balance-of-plant and system data, all captured at 1 Hz, including hydrogen mass production measured with an Emerson Coriolis flow meter. Each .zip file represents a single solar PV electrolysis experiment and is formatted as: {technology}_{percentile}_{scaling factor} For instance, “solarPV-430kW_25_2x.zip” reports the experiment using the 25th percentile solar data from the historical 2020 solar PV dataset, scaled to 200%. Scaling factors were applied to the generated solar PV power output files to more closely match the 1.25-MW capacity of the electrolyzer. Each .zip folder contains the following files: A .csv file containing raw data. An .xlsx file explaining all the fields in the raw data. A .png plot showing the time series of hydrogen production, electrolysis power consumption, and solar power input. A PDF file detailing the historical solar data statistical analysis used to generate the solar profile. An experiment labeled “characterization_200.zip” demonstrates the MC250 electrolyzer steady-state response with 30-minute load steps for a total duration of 5 hours. Finally, a .csv file is provided with all experiments combined into one dataset labeled "combined_solarPV_experiments.csv". [1] nelhydrogen.com/product/mc-series-electrolyser . [2] data.nlr.gov/submissions/316 .

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2020

Unexpected Giant Microwave Conductivity in a Nominally Silent BiFeO 3 Domain Wall

Nanoelectronic devices based on ferroelectric domain walls (DWs), such as memories, transistors, and rectifiers, have been shown in recent years. Practical high-speed electronics, on the other hand, usually demand operation frequencies in the gigahertz (GHz) regime, where the effect of dipolar oscillation is important. Herein, an unexpected giant GHz conductivity on the order of 10 3 S m -1 is observed in certain BiFeO 3 DWs, which is about 100 000 times greater than the carrier-induced direct current (dc) conductivity of the same walls. Surprisingly, the nominal configuration of the DWs precludes the alternating current (ac) conduction under an excitation electric field perpendicular to the surface. Theoretical analysis reflects that the inclined DWs are stressed asymmetrically near the film surface, whereas the vertical walls in a control sample are not. The resultant imbalanced polarization profile can then couple to the out-of-plane microwave fields and induce power dissipation, which is confirmed by the phase-field modeling. Since the contributions from mobile-carrier conduction and bound-charge oscillation to the ac conductivity are equivalent in a microwave circuit, the research on local structural dynamics may open a new avenue to implement DW nano-devices for radio-frequency applications.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

A Four‐Coordinate Pr 4+ Imidophosphorane Complex

Abstract The imidophosphorane ligand, [NP t Bu 3 ] − ( t Bu= tert ‐butyl), enables isolation of a pseudo‐tetrahedral, tetravalent praseodymium complex, [Pr 4+ (NP t Bu 3 ) 4 ] ( 1‐Pr ), which is characterized by a suite of physical characterization methods including single‐crystal X‐ray diffraction, electron paramagnetic resonance, and L 3 ‐edge X‐ray near‐edge spectroscopies. Variable‐temperature direct‐current magnetic susceptibility data, supported by multiconfigurational quantum chemical calculations, demonstrate that the electronic structure diverges from the isoelectronic Ce 3+ analogue, driven by increased crystal field. The four‐coordinate environment around Pr 4+ in 1‐Pr , which is unparalleled in reported extended solid systems, provides a unique opportunity to study the interplay between crystal field splitting and spin‐orbit coupling in a molecular tetravalent lanthanide within a pseudo‐tetrahedral coordination geometry.

Boggiano, Andrew C.↗
DOE OSTI2024

A Four‐Coordinate Pr 4+ Imidophosphorane Complex

Abstract The imidophosphorane ligand, [NP t Bu 3 ] − ( t Bu= tert ‐butyl), enables isolation of a pseudo‐tetrahedral, tetravalent praseodymium complex, [Pr 4+ (NP t Bu 3 ) 4 ] ( 1‐Pr ), which is characterized by a suite of physical characterization methods including single‐crystal X‐ray diffraction, electron paramagnetic resonance, and L 3 ‐edge X‐ray near‐edge spectroscopies. Variable‐temperature direct‐current magnetic susceptibility data, supported by multiconfigurational quantum chemical calculations, demonstrate that the electronic structure diverges from the isoelectronic Ce 3+ analogue, driven by increased crystal field. The four‐coordinate environment around Pr 4+ in 1‐Pr , which is unparalleled in reported extended solid systems, provides a unique opportunity to study the interplay between crystal field splitting and spin‐orbit coupling in a molecular tetravalent lanthanide within a pseudo‐tetrahedral coordination geometry.

Boggiano, Andrew C.↗
DOE OSTI2023

Quantifying optical loss of high-voltage degradation modes in photovoltaic modules using spectral analysis

The direct current bias for photovoltaic (PV) modules interconnected in series-strings may include both high voltage negative (“HV-”) and positive (“HV+”) polarity with respect to the electrical ground. Multiple degradation modes, resulting in quantifiable optical loss, were found to occur during HV-/HV+ sequential stress, including corrosion of the external glass surface, encapsulant delamination (at its interfaces with the glass and the PV cell), internal haze formation (resulting from a chemical interaction between the glass and the encapsulant), corrosion and migration of the gridlines, and corrosion of the silicon nitride (Si x N y ) antireflective coating on the cell. The effects of these separate modes were examined using monolithic (e.g., glass or PV cell) and laminated-coupon (glass/encapsulant/glass or glass/encapsulant/cell/encapsulant/backsheet) specimens. Characterizations during and after unbiased accelerated testing at 85°C/85% relative humidity included spectrophotometry, optical microscopy, electron microscopy, and ellipsometry. For some module components (i.e., the glass and the Si x N y coating), the optical performance was determined through iterative analysis of empirical measurements. Concentrating on just their spectral effect, a novel model was then developed to estimate the transfer of light to the PV cell and the return of light from the PV module with simultaneous degradation mechanisms, which was compared with a mini-module previously subjected to HV-/HV+ stress. Here the model suggests that one third of the current loss observed for the mini-module can be attributed to the optical degradation of the packaging materials. The dominant degradation modes include encapsulant delamination and corrosion of the Si x N y coating. Recommendations are given so that the optical model may be improved relative to accelerated testing and validated relative to field aging.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Nitrogen fixation as NO x using air plasma coupled with heterogeneous catalysis at atmospheric pressure

Here, this study presents insights into the use of activated Al 2 O 3 catalysts to improve the energy efficiency of NO x production in atmospheric pressure air plasma. The introduction of catalysts in the direct current glow discharge system reduces the energy cost of NO x production by up to 45% at low gas flow rates. Notably, even when positioned away from the plasma zone, the catalyst enhanced NO x production, suggesting a significant role for the catalytic activation of downstream neutral species. The study also introduced a novel approach involving an air plasma jet infused with floating catalyst powder. This method significantly increased energy efficiency at higher discharge currents, with an associated energy cost of 2.9 MJ/mol for NO x production.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

Heterogeneous Catalysis by Fullerene C 60 : Photocatalytic Dehydro‐Dimerization of Primary Amines and Tetrahydroquinolines Studied Using Thread Spray Mass Spectrometry

Abstract Removal of a catalyst after a catalytic process is a time‐consuming and challenging process. In this paper, a fullerene catalyst coated on cellulose thread is developed and applied it in a heterogeneous photoreaction screening via a thread spray mass spectrometry (MS) platform. The surface of the cellulose thread is modified with NH 2 groups, which subsequently allows immobilization of fullerene C 60 on the thread. The final fullerene functionalized thread is placed in a glass capillary and the solution of the reactant to be interrogated is added. The assembly of thread and glass capillary is placed in front of a mass spectrometer, which serves as an online photoreaction platform after a light source and direct current high voltage are applied. As an ambient ionization approach, the photocatalytic reaction screening platform enabled real‐time MS characterization of products and intermediates and using only nanomole quantities of reactants. Fullerene C 60 is identified to facilitate dehydro‐dimerization reactions from amines. Norharmane shows a unique photo‐oxygenated dimer formation. The functionalized threads immobilized with fullerene C 60 are reusable, confirming the heterogeneous nature of the platform. Thus, this system provided real‐time screening of reactions catalyzed by fullerene C 60 and a means to investigate the reaction mechanism.

Chemistry↗
DOE OSTI2023

Underlying Substrate Effect on Electrochemical Activity for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction with Low‐Platinum‐Loaded Catalysts

Platinum is known as the best catalyst for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) but the scarcity and high cost of Pt limit its widespread applicability. Herein, the role of the underlying substrate on the HER activity of dispersed Pt atoms is uncovered. A direct current magnetron sputtering technique is utilized to deposit transition metal (TM) thin films of W, Ti, and Ta as underlying substrates for extremely low loading of Pt (<1.5 at%). The electrocatalytic performance of as‐synthesized samples for the HER is examined in both alkali and acidic media. The results show that despite the low loading of Pt, the Pt/TM catalysts produce hydrogen at a rate comparable to that of pristine bulk Pt. Pt/TM catalysts also display good stability with less than 5% decay in performance after 10 h of continuous HER operation. Based on the computational study, the excellent performance is attributed to the modified electronic properties of the Pt atoms, offering ideal binding energy for HER due to interaction with the underlying substrates. This work provides a robust and industry‐friendly route toward designing efficient catalytic systems for important electrochemical reactions such as HER and others.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2020

Protection Scheme for Multiterminal HVDC System Based on Wavelet Transform Modulus Maxima

Fault protection is a major issue in the development of multiterminal high‐voltage direct current (HVDC) system based on voltage‐source converter. Owing to the rapid increase in fault current under DC faults, protection requires a fast fault detection method to isolate the fault current. However, the selectivity and reliability of the fast protection scheme should be primarily guaranteed. Therefore, a new protection strategy based on modulus maximum under wavelet transform is proposed in this paper. Fault detection and discrimination are achieved using single‐end signals of fault current. The external and internal faults can be discriminated via local information. The reliability and robustness of the proposed scheme against potential factors are verified. Numerous simulation cases are performed in PSCAD/EMTDC under different fault scenarios, and signal data are analyzed in MATLAB to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed fault protection scheme. © 2020 Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan. Published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.

Huai, Qing↗
DOE OSTI2025

Lepto-axiogenesis with light right-handed neutrinos

We study lepto-axiogenesis in theories where the right-handed neutrino is light enough that its dynamics affect the determination of the baryon asymmetry. When compared with theories of high-scale lepto-axiogenesis where the Majorana neutrino mass may be treated as an effective dimension-five operator, we find that the predicted saxion mass is lower. Two distinct scenarios emerge. In the first, processes that generate the baryon asymmetry are in equilibrium down to the mass of the right-handed neutrino. In the second, the relevant processes never reach equilibrium; the baryon number freezes in. We comment on implications for supersymmetric spectra and discuss constraints on late decays of supersymmetric relics and from dark radiation. In contrast to high-scale lepto-axiogenesis, which predicts superpartners with masses of 10–100 TeV or more, we find this scenario is consistent with a wider range of superpartner masses, all the way down to current direct search bounds.

Axions and ALPs↗
DOE OSTI2021

Covariant color-kinematics duality

We show that color-kinematics duality is a manifest property of the equations of motion governing currents and field strengths. For the nonlinear sigma model (NLSM), this insight enables an implementation of the double copy at the level of fields, as well as an explicit construction of the kinematic algebra and associated kinematic current. As a byproduct, we also derive new formulations of the special Galileon (SG) and Born-Infeld (BI) theory. For Yang-Mills (YM) theory, this same approach reveals a novel structure — covariant color-kinematics duality — whose only difference from the conventional duality is that 1/$\square$ is replaced with covariant 1/D 2 . Remarkably, this structure implies that YM theory is itself the covariant double copy of gauged biadjoint scalar (GBAS) theory and an F 3 theory of field strengths encoding a corresponding kinematic algebra and current. Directly applying the double copy to equations of motion, we derive general relativity (GR) from the product of Einstein-YM and F 3 theory. This exercise reveals a trivial variant of the classical double copy that recasts any solution of GR as a solution of YM theory in a curved background. Covariant color-kinematics duality also implies a new decomposition of tree-level amplitudes in YM theory into those of GBAS theory. Using this representation we derive a closed-form, analytic expression for all BCJ numerators in YM theory and the NLSM for any number of particles in any spacetime dimension. By virtue of the double copy, this constitutes an explicit formula for all tree-level scattering amplitudes in YM, GR, NLSM, SG, and BI.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2023

Assessment of potential impact of magnetic fields from a subsea high-voltage DC power cable on migrating green sturgeon, Acipenser medirostris

Abstract Empirical evidence suggests that marine animals perceive and orient to local distortions in the earth’s natural magnetic field. Magnetic fields (MFs) generated by electrified underwater cables may produce similar local distortions in the earth’s main field. Concern exists that these distortions may impact migration movements of MF-sensitive animals. The Trans Bay Cable (TBC) is a ± 200-kV, 400-megawatt, 85-km high-voltage direct current transmission line buried through San Francisco Bay (37° 56′ 8.81″ N, 122° 27′ 0.19″ W). Detections of adult green sturgeon implanted with acoustic transmitters were used from six cross-bay receiver arrays from 2006 to 2015 to investigate how inbound and outbound migration movements through lower portions of their route to/from upstream breeding grounds are related to the TBC’s energization status (off/on) and other local environmental variables. Here, we assess how these variables impacted transit success, misdirection from the migration route, transit times, and migration path locations within stretches between the Bay’s mouth and the start of the Sacramento River. Overall, there was varied evidence for any effect on migration behavior associated with cable status (off/on). A higher percentage of inbound fish successfully transited after the cable was energized, but this effect was nonsignificant in models including temperature. Outbound fish took longer to transit after cable energization. Inbound and outbound migration path locations were not significantly influenced by cable energization, but results suggest a potential subtle relationship between energization and both inbound and outbound paths. Overall, additional migration-based studies are needed to investigate the impact of anthropogenic cables on marine species.

Wyman, Megan T. (ORCID:0000000256844603)↗
DOE OSTI2022

Enhancing Surface Finish of Additively Manufactured 316L Stainless Steel with Pulse/Pulse Reverse Electropolishing

To improve the reliable integration of additively manufactured (AM) metal components, there is an urgent need for surface finishing methods capable of processing rough, “as-printed” surfaces. Here, we present a new and scalable electropolishing (EP) technique for use on AM 316L stainless steel (SS) that is capable of achieving a surface roughness equivalent to a machined finish, with arithmetic mean heights (S a ) as low as 1.0 µm. This technique utilizes the sequential application of a new, NaCl/H 2 O pulse/pulse reverse (P/PR) EP step along with a conventional DC (direct current) EP step, where P/PR expands the capability of EP by removing roughness features > 1 µm, which has been previously unattainable with DC EP alone without substantial material removal. This is achieved by independently varying pulse parameters, such as pulse width and height, allowing more control over electrodynamic processes at the part-electrolyte interface. Additionally, P/PR EP resulted in higher smoothing efficiency, where a higher degree of smoothing was achieved with less material removal when compared with conventional DC EP alone. This minimizes unwanted change in geometry from excessive metal dissolution.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Economics of electric vehicle corridor fast charging in the United States

Corridor direct-current fast charging (DCFC) stations enable long-distance electric vehicle travel, yet their economics remain uncertain due to high capital costs, low initial utilization, and exposure to utility demand charges. This study evaluates the long-term economics of corridor DCFC across the United States, incorporating capital and operating expenses-including charging equipment and real-world utility tariffs-alongside modeled station utilization, financial incentives, and ancillary retail revenue. In the Baseline scenario, modeled breakeven costs for corridor DCFC average $\$$0.42/kWh over 20 years, yet fewer than half of stations reach cost parity with gasoline on a per-mile basis. Utilization is the primary driver of cost variation, with low-utilization stations costing roughly six times more per kilowatt-hour than the national average. Excluding stations that fail to reach cost parity reduces National Highway System coverage within 50 miles from 94% to 67%, underscoring the trade-off between market-driven deployment and comprehensive network coverage. These results provide guidance for charging providers, utilities, planners, and policymakers seeking to develop and sustain a financially viable national corridor charging network.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2020

Enabling thermal efficiency improvement and waste heat recovery using liquid air harnessed from offshore renewable energy sources

A novel approach using decoupled processes to harness offshore renewable energy, from marine hydrokinetics, ocean waves, wind, and solar to produce liquid air, is presented here. Offshore renewables interconnection using submarine medium- and high-voltage direct current technologies are used to produce liquid air that can be transported to end-use locations using repurposed liquefied natural gas tankers. Two important possibilities arise from using the proposed technology. The first possibility allows the integration with conventional thermal cycles to improve efficiency. This approach can be used to leverage efficiencies of thermal systems that have already reached a plateau in the maximum achievable efficiency via design and operation optimization. The second possibility is related to the incorporation of low temperature cycles to recover waste heat from other thermal processes. This is important considering that waste heat accounts for more than 60% of the consumed energy in the United States. A detailed technical description of the complete cycle from cryogen generation to end-use of energy is provided. Estimation of efficiency enhancement for thermal plants using liquid air including waste heat recovery is presented.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2021

Simulation and power quality analysis of a Loose-Coupled bipolar DC microgrid in an office building

With distributed generation and battery storage technologies thriving in microgrids, the use of direct current (DC) microgrids in the building sector offers multiple advantages in energy efficiency and power quality compared with alternating current (AC) systems. This study developed a new concept of a loose-coupled bipolar DC building power system. In this work, the concept was used to design a real-world office building in Shenzhen, China. A power system model was developed to study the stability and control of the DC power system and to verify DC power quality. The design and modeling of the DC power control system is discussed in detail. The study developed a few common fault scenarios in DC building microgrids that were simulated in the MATLAB-Simulink environment to validate the design of a loose-coupled bipolar DC system. The results indicate that the proposed loose-coupled bipolar DC system schema, when implemented with proper control algorithms, can achieve good fault-tolerant performance with reliable power quality, even during disruptive system events.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗