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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 397 records · Page 22
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

Real time quantification of mixed ion and electron transfer associated with the doping of poly(3-hexylthiophene)

Conjugated polymers have promising applications in electronics and energy storage due to the polymer's tunable conductivity and redox activity. For example, the conductivity of poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) is heavily dependent upon the doping level and the dopant type. This feature becomes especially important when considering P3HT or similar conjugated polymers for devices that require switching between electronic states (conductive vs. insulating). In this study, the mechanism of mixed ion-electron transfer studied using electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (EQCM-D) is discussed. During cyclic voltammetry and galvanostatic charge–discharge experiments, the mass change of a P3HT film is monitored in real time. Distinct mass transfer regions are quantified as a function of doping level and potential, which are then correlated to changes with in situ conductance and spectroelectrochemical response. To identify the time scale at which the doping reaction transitions from kinetic to diffusion control, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy is coupled with EQCM-D. Finally, this work gives valuable insight into the nature of mixed ion–electron transfer, including its time scale, as it relates to the electronic properties of P3HT.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2021

Wave-driven torques to drive current and rotation

In the classic Landau damping initial value problem, where a planar electrostatic wave transfers energy and momentum to resonant electrons, a recoil reaction occurs in the nonresonant particles to ensure momentum conservation. To explain how net current can be driven in spite of this conservation, the literature often appeals to mechanisms that transfer this nonresonant recoil momentum to ions, which carry negligible current. However, this explanation does not allow the transport of net charge across magnetic field lines, precluding E X B rotation drive. In this study, we show that in steady state, this picture of current drive is incomplete. Using a simple Fresnel model of the plasma, we show that for lower hybrid waves, the electromagnetic energy flux (Poynting vector) and momentum flux (Maxwell stress tensor) associated with the evanescent vacuum wave become the Minkowski energy flux and momentum flux in the plasma and are ultimately transferred to resonant particles. Thus, the torque delivered to the resonant particles is ultimately supplied by the electromagnetic torque from the antenna, allowing the nonresonant recoil response to vanish and rotation to be driven. We present a warm fluid model that explains how this momentum conservation works out locally, via a Reynolds stress that does not appear in the one-dimensional initial value problem. This model is the simplest that can capture both the nonresonant recoil reaction in the initial-value problem, and the absence of a nonresonant recoil in the steady-state boundary value problem, thus forbidding rotation drive in the former while allowing it in the latter.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

In-beam γ-ray spectroscopy of 68 Fe from charge exchange on 68 Co projectiles

Excited states in the neutron-rich nucleus 68 Fe were populated using a 9 Be( 68 Co, 68 Fe + γ)X charge-exchange reaction at 95 MeV/u. The new γ-ray transitions reported here for the first time complement data from β-decay studies and nucleon knockout reactions. In comparison to shell-model calculations with the LNPS effective interaction, two candidate states for the $6$$^{+}_{1}$ level emerge. Here, the distinct population pattern of excited states and the magnitude of the cross section, σ inc = 0.51(6) mb, make this reaction a promising one for future in-beam γ -ray spectroscopy. Reaction calculations with nuclear structure input from a new, locally optimized Hamiltonian, f7j4a, together with general considerations for heavy-ion-induced charge-exchange reactions appear consistent with most of the observations, although challenges remain.

59 ≤ A ≤ 89↗
DOE OSTI2025

Multilayer Electrodes with Metalized Polymer Current Collector for High-Energy Lithium-Ion Batteries with Extreme-Fast-Charging Capability

The pursuit of batteries capable of extreme fast charging (XFC), that also satisfy high energy and safety criteria, poses a significant challenge to current lithium-ion battery technologies. Additionally, the increasing demand for aluminum (Al) and copper (Cu) in electrification, and vehicle light weighting is driving these metals towards near-critical status in the medium term. This study introduced metalized polymer films by depositing an Al or Cu thin layer onto two sides of a polyethylene terephthalate (PET) film – named mPET/Al and mPET/Cu, as lightweight, cost-effective alternatives to traditional metal current collectors in LIBs. We have utilized current collectors that significantly reduce weight (by 73%), thickness (by 33%), and cost (by 85%) compared to traditional metal foil counterparts. We conducted an extensive evaluation of their mechanical and electrical properties, including in-plane and through-plane resistivities, affirming their suitability for the roll-to-roll battery manufacturing process. Additionally, a novel XFC testing protocol was employed to thoroughly assess the cells' (both half and full-cell) performance across various C-rates and under long-term tests. These advancements have the potential to enhance energy density to 280 Wh/kg at the electrode level under 10-minute charging at 6C. Through testing, including a novel XFC protocol across various C-rates and long-term cycling (up to 1000 cycles) in different cell configurations, we have demonstrated the superior performance of these metalized polymer films. Notably, mPET/Cu and mPET/Al foils exhibited comparable capacities to conventional cells under XFC, with the mPET cells showing a 27% improvement in energy density at 6C and maintaining significant energy density after 1000 cycles. This study underscored the potential of mPET foils to revolutionize the roll-to-roll battery manufacturing process and significantly advance the performance metrics of LIBs in EV applications. Moreover, our results suggest that there is potential to enhance the performance of mPET foils, especially mPET/Al, by optimizing the manufacturing process to achieve higher conductivity.

99 GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Advancing the Performance of Lithium-Rich Oxides in Cooperation with Inherent Complexities: Engineering Domain Structure

The nanodomain structure of lithium- and manganese-rich, composite cathode materials has been systematically altered through synthesis conditions while keeping larger-scale morphological differences to a minimum. Clear changes in electrochemical performance across the samples studied are observed, especially with respect to the anomalous impedance at low states-of-charge. Atomic-scale modeling, coupled to electrochemical measurements and physical characterization, reveals the local consequences of the high-voltage activation charge process as a function of specific domain structures. Furthermore, the results explain the influence of different postactivation structures on the insertion of Li-ions and the associated impedance during discharge. This work adds to our series of studies on lithium- and manganese-rich oxides, demonstrating that the inherent performance of LMRs can be greatly enhanced through rational, highly controlled synthetic strategies based on an understanding of synthesis–structure–property relationships across length scales.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Controlling protein adsorption modes electrostatically

Protein adsorption on surfaces is ubiquitous in biology and in biotechnology. There are various forces required for controlling protein adsorption. Here, we introduce an explicit ion coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulation approach for studying the effects of electrostatics on protein adsorption, and 2D protein assembly on charged surfaces. Our model accounts for the spatial distribution of protein charges. We use catalase as our model protein. We find that the preferential adsorption mode of proteins at low protein concentration on a charged surface is “standing up”. When the protein concentration in a solution increases to reach a critical density on the surface, the adsorption mode switches from “standing up” to a mixed state “flat on” and “standing up”, which increases the lateral correlations among the adsorbed proteins. As such, the changes in the adsorption mode arise from the protein adsorption that cancel the surface charge and the protein–protein repulsion. This correlated surface structure melts as the salt concentration increases because the charged surface is cancelled by the salt ions and the proteins de-adsorb. For the case of strongly charged surfaces the “standing up” conformation remains more favorable even at high protein adsorption at low salt concentrations since in that conformation the surface charge is cancelled more effectively, generating an even more laterally correlated structure. We elucidate the effects of parameters such as surface charge density, salt concentration, and protein charges on the different adsorption modes and the structure and organization of proteins on the charged surfaces. Finally, this study provides a guide for controlling protein assembly on surfaces.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2026

Studies of laser stimulated photodetachment from nanoparticles for particle charge measurements

Determining nanoparticle charge is more challenging than that for microparticles due to change in the particle size during the synthesis substantial plasma property variations, and difficulties in visualizing individual particles, rendering conventional microparticle charge diagnostics ineffective in dusty plasma. In this work, we utilized laser-stimulated photodetachment (LSPD) to deduce the mean charge of nanoparticles. Nanoparticles were grown in an Ar/C 2 H 2 mixture using a capacitively coupled RF discharge and the LSPD induced changes in the electron current monitored by a cylindrical Langmuir probe. LSPD signals were obtained and analyzed across different dust growth phases. The prolonged decay of electron current pulses was attributed to the presence of residual negative ions, caused by the effective electrostatic trapping of these ions and the potential post—LSPD re-formation of new ones. The particle charge was estimated by combining the laser-stimulated photodetachment signal from the probe with the dust density obtained from laser-light extinction using the measured nanoparticle size distribution. For a nanoparticles size range of approximately 100–250 nm and mean diameter of $d$ p ∼154.37 nm, the effective mean charge was estimated to be $\langle$$Q$$\rangle$ d $≈$ 37 elementary charge units. The measured charge values are lower than those predicted by orbital motion limited theory, which may be attributed to significant electron depletion in the nanodusty plasma. LSPD results in Ar/C 2 H 2 nano-dusty plasma confirm the applicability of this method for estimating individual nanoparticle charges. However, it has also been demonstrated that electron detachment from residual background negative ions can influence the detachment current decay and must be carefully considered.

dust particle charge↗
DOE OSTI2021

Ultrafast charging of energy-dense lithium-ion batteries for urban air mobility

Urban air mobility (UAM) demands batteries with high energy density, long cycle life, and fast rechargeability. In this paper, we demonstrate an energy-dense lithium-ion battery (LiB) with ultralong cycle life under ultrafast charging. By using the asymmetric temperature modulation (ATM) method, i.e., charging at an elevated temperature and discharging around the ambient temperature, it is experimentally shown that the 209 Wh/kg LiB is charged to 88% state of charge (SOC) in ~5 min under UAM cycling while retaining 97.7% capacity after 1,000 cycles. Moreover, an experimentally validated electrochemical-thermal (ECT) model is developed to elucidate the fast charging process and the degradation mode of UAM batteries, quantitatively capturing lithium plating during fast charging. We find that the LiBs for UAM applications are most prone to lithium plating due to their higher initial SOC required as the reserve for safety; nevertheless, the ATM method is effective in minimizing or preventing lithium plating in the high SOC range of 30-90%. In addition to slowing down capacity fade, the ATM method also raises the usable capacity by 10%, which boosts the battery energy density and ensures the battery to perform full UAM cycles even at the end of life.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

The phase diagram of quantum chromodynamics in one dimension on a quantum computer

The quantum chromodynamics (QCD) phase diagram, which reveals the state of strongly interacting matter at different temperatures and densities, is key to answering open questions in physics, ranging from the behaviour of particles in neutron stars to the conditions of the early universe. However, classical simulations of QCD face significant computational barriers, such as the sign problem at finite matter densities. Quantum computing offers a promising solution to overcome these challenges. Here, we take an important step toward exploring the QCD phase diagram with quantum devices by preparing thermal states in one-dimensional non-Abelian gauge theories. We experimentally simulate the thermal states of SU(2) and SU(3) gauge theories at finite densities on a trapped-ion quantum computer using a variational method. This is achieved by introducing two features: Firstly, we add motional ancillae to the existing qubit register to efficiently prepare thermal probability distributions. Secondly, we introduce charge-singlet measurements to enforce colour-neutrality constraints. This work pioneers the quantum simulation of QCD at finite density and temperature for two and three colours, laying the foundation to explore QCD phenomena on quantum platforms.

Quantum information↗
DOE OSTI2023

Mechanisms Controlling the Energy Barrier for Ion Hopping in Polymer Electrolytes

Here, the present work studies the mechanisms controlling the energy barrier for ion hopping in conducting polymers. Polymer electrolytes usually show Arrhenius-like temperature dependence of the conductivity relaxation time (characteristic time of local ion rearrangements) at temperatures below their glass transition T g . However, our analysis reveals that the Arrhenius fit of this regime leads to unphysically small prefactors, τ 0 $\ll$ 10 –13 s. Imposing a value of 10 –13 s for this parameter renders the fairly unexpected result that the energy barrier for charge transport in these polymers has strong temperature dependence even below T g . Our study also reveals significant temperature variations of the dielectric permittivity and the instantaneous shear modulus in the glassy state of these polymers. Using the Anderson and Stuart model, we demonstrate that these variations provide strong justifications for the temperature variation of energy barrier for ion hopping. Most importantly, the proposed approach reveals that the energy barrier controlling ion hopping in polymer electrolytes is significantly (~30–40%) lower than that estimated using traditional Arrhenius fit. These new insights call for revisions of many earlier results based on apparent Arrhenius fits, and the newly proposed approach can provide more accurate guidance for the design of solid-state electrolytes with enhanced ionic conductivity.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Stepwise impregnation of bimetallic catalysts for carbon nanotube synthesis

Supported bimetallic catalysts are widely used for carbon nanotube (CNT) synthesis, yet the effects of impregnation procedure remain underexplored. Here, we investigated how the sequence of metal impregnation affects CNT synthesis. We prepared cobalt-molybdenum (Co-Mo) bimetallic catalysts on alumina supports via co- and stepwise impregnation, then compared their CNT synthesis performance under identical conditions. Stepwise-impregnated catalysts exhibited higher carbon yields than those prepared by co-impregnation. Notably, impregnating Mo after Co achieved the highest yield despite the lowest BET surface area. Synchrotron X-ray diffraction and visible/UV-Raman spectroscopy revealed that only this catalyst contained Al 2 (MoO 4 ) 3 with a MoO 4 structure. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy clarified the surface chemistry: the catalyst with the highest CNT productivity exposed Mo entirely as Mo 6+ in Al 2 (MoO 4 ) 3 and CoMoO 4 , whereas the others contained both Mo 4+ and Mo 6+ . The MoO x species like Al 2 (MoO 4 ) 3 is known to suppress Co sintering during CNT synthesis, delaying catalyst deactivation and enhancing the carbon yield. Moreover, an inverse relationship was observed between carbon yield and the CoMoO 4 content. This is attributed to the consumption of catalytically active Co during CoMoO 4 formation, which reduces active sites for CNT growth. ICP-OES further confirmed higher Co and Mo loadings for stepwise catalysts, contributing to superior catalyst performance. The extent of CoMoO 4 formation strongly depended on the metal introduction sequence. In conclusion, this trend is illustrated by considering the relationship between the point of zero charge of support and the pH of the metal precursor solutions.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

MXene-Derived Potassium-Preintercalated Bilayered Vanadium Oxide Nanostructures for Cathodes in Nonaqueous K-Ion Batteries

Bilayered vanadium oxides (BVOs) are promising cathode materials for beyond-Li-ion batteries due to their tunable chemistries and high theoretical capacities. However, the large size of beyond-Li + ions limits electrochemical cycling and rate capability of BVO electrodes. Recent reports of MXene-derived BVOs with nanoscale flower-like morphology have shown improved electrochemical stability at high rates up to 5C in nonaqueous lithium-ion batteries. Here, we report how morphological stabilization can lead to improved rate capability in potassium-ion batteries (PIBs) through the synthesis and electrochemical characterization of MXene-derived K-preintercalated BVOs (MD-KVOs), which were derived from two V 2 CT x precursor materials prepared using two different etching protocols. We show that the etching conditions affect the surface chemistry of the MXene, which plays a role in the MXene-to-oxide transformation process. MXene derived from a milder etchant transformed into a nanoflower MD-KVO with two-dimensional (2D) nanosheet petals (KVO-DMAE) while a more aggressive etchant produced a MXene that transformed into a MD-KVO with one-dimensional (1D) nanorod morphology (KVO-CMAE). Electrochemical cycling of the produced MD-KVOs after drying at 200 °C under vacuum (KVO-DMAE-200 and KVO-CMAE-200) in PIBs showed that electrochemical stability of MD-KVO at high rates improved through the morphological stabilization of 2D particles combined with the control of interlayer water and K + ion content. Structure refinement of KVO-DMAE-200 further corroborates the behavior observed during K + ion cycling, connecting structural and compositional characteristics to the improved rate capability. This work demonstrates how proper synthetic methodology can cause downstream effects in the control of structure, chemical composition, and morphology of nanostructured layered oxide materials, which is necessary for development of future materials for beyond-Li-ion battery technologies.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Extraction of the non-spin- and spin-transfer isovector responses via the 12 C ⁡( 10 Be, 10 B + 𝛾)⁢ 12 B reaction

The isovector response in 12 B was investigated via the 12 C ⁡( 10 Be, 10 B + 𝛾)⁢ 12 B* reaction at 100⁢𝐴MeV. By utilizing the 𝛾-decay properties of the 1.74 MeV 0 + and 0.718 MeV 1 + states in 10 B, the separate extraction of the non-spin-transfer (Δ⁢𝑆 = 0) and spin-transfer (Δ⁢𝑆 = 1) isovector responses up to an excitation energy of 50 MeV in 12 B in a single measurement is demonstrated. The experimental setup employed the S800 spectrometer to detect and analyze the 10 B ejectiles and the Gamma-Ray Energy Tracking In-beam Nuclear Array (GRETINA) for obtaining the Doppler-reconstructed spectrum for 𝛾 rays emitted in flight by 10 B. A 12 C foil was placed at the pivot point of the spectrograph. Here, the 12 B reaction product was not detected. Contributions from transitions associated with the transfer of different units of angular momentum in the non-spin- and spin-transfer responses were analyzed using a multipole decomposition analysis. The extracted non-spin-dipole (Δ⁢𝑆 = 0, Δ⁢𝐿 = 1) and spin-dipole (Δ⁢𝑆 = 1, Δ⁢𝐿 = 1) responses were found to be consistent with available data from other charge-exchange probes, validating the non-spin- and spin-transfer filters used. While statistical uncertainties and experimental resolutions were relatively large due to the modest intensity of the 10 Be secondary beam, the results show that, with the much higher intensities that will be available at new rare-isotope beam facilities, the ( 10 Be, 10 B + 𝛾) reaction and its Δ⁢𝑇 𝑧 = −1 partner, the ( 10 C, 10 B + 𝛾) reaction, are powerful tools for elucidating the isovector non-spin- and spin-transfer responses in nuclei.

Charge-exchange reactions↗
DOE OSTI2020

Recognition of V3+/V4+/V5+ Multielectron Reactions in Na3V(PO4)2: A Potential High Energy Density Cathode for Sodium-Ion Batteries

Na3V(PO4)2 was reported recently as a novel cathode material with high theoretical energy density for Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs). However, whether V3+/V4+/V5+ multielectron reactions can be realized during the charging process is still an open question. In this work, Na3V(PO4)2 is synthesized by using a solid-state method. Its atomic composition and crystal structure are verified by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and neutron diffraction (ND) joint refinement. The electrochemical performance of Na3V(PO4)2 is evaluated in two different voltage windows, namely 2.5–3.8 and 2.5–4.3 V. 51V solid-state NMR (ssNMR) results disclose the presence of V5+ in Na2-xV(PO4)2 when charging Na3V(PO4)2 to 4.3 V, confirming Na3V(PO4)2 is a potential high energy density cathode through realization of V3+/V4+/V5+ multielectron reactions.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Solid-State, Single-Ion Conducting, Polymer Blend Electrolytes with Enhanced Li + Conduction, Electrochemical Stability, and Limiting Current Density

The development of solid-state polymer electrolytes with high lithium conductivity is crucial to improve lithium-ion battery performance and ameliorate the safety challenges associated with current solvent-based electrolytes. Unfortunately, sluggish polymer segmental dynamics are known to constrain conductivity enhancements in solid-state polymer electrolyte systems, limiting overall performance. In this work, a glassy single-ion-conducting polymer, poly[lithium sulfonyl(trifluoromethane sulfonyl)imide methacrylate] (PLiMTFSI), was blended with a flexible polymer, poly(oligo-oxyethylene methyl ether methacrylate) (POEM), and the impact of PLiMTFSI molecular weight and ion concentration on the thermal and ion-conducting behavior of blend electrolytes was investigated. High ionic conductivities approaching 1 × 10 -2 S/cm at 150 °C were realized in this polymer blend electrolyte system as a result of decoupling Li + transport from polymer segmental dynamics. The decoupled ion transport was attributed to the packing frustration of the glassy PLiMTFSI – sufficient percolating free volume was generated to produce effective ion diffusion pathways. This decoupling was tunable as the ion transport could be altered from being closely coupled to the polymer segmental dynamics (Vogel–Tammann–Fulcher-like) to hopping (Arrhenius-like) by increasing the PLiMTFSI molecular weight and ion concentration. Moreover, the immobilized TFSI anion resulted in high Li + selectivity (Li + transference number = 0.9), high electrochemical stability (up to 4.7 V against Li + / Li), and limiting current density of 1.8 mA/cm 2 (electrolyte thickness = 0.05 cm). These features suggest that this single-ion-conducting, polymer blend electrolyte might be a promising alternative to a benchmark system – salt-doped polyethylene oxide. Moreover, the above characteristics can support the battery operation at higher voltages using energy-dense Li metal anodes, with faster charging rates and enhanced energy/power densities. Altogether, the results suggest that polymer chain packing frustration can be exploited to overcome the constraints of slow polymer segmental relaxations to achieve rapid and highly selective ion transport and enhanced performance in solid-state polymer electrolytes.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

pH Regulates Ion Dynamics in Carboxylated Mixed Conductors

Coupled ionic and electronic transport underpins processes as diverse as electrochemical energy conversion, biological signaling, and soft adaptive electronics. Yet, how chemical environments such as pH modulate this coupling at the molecular scale remains poorly understood. Here, we show that the protonation state of carboxylated polythiophenes provides precise chemical control over ion dynamics, doping efficiency, solvent uptake, and mechanical response. Using a suite of multimodal operando techniques, supported by simulations, we reveal that pH dictates the balance of cation/anion uptake during electrochemical doping. Mapping across pH uncovers a quasi-nonswelling regime (≈pH 3–3.5) where charge compensation proceeds with minimal volumetric change yet pronounced stiffening. These findings establish molecular acidity as a general strategy to program ionic preference and mechanical stability, offering design principles for pH-responsive mixed conductors and soft electronic materials that couple ionic, electronic, and mechanical functionality.

PH↗
DOE OSTI2023

Gas stopping and reacceleration techniques at the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams (FRIB)

The Facility for Rare Isotope Beams (FRIB) at Michigan State University provides a wide range of beams and energies for science with fast, stopped and reaccelerated rare-isotope beams. FRIB was commissioned in 2022 with the science program beginning in May 2022. Here, the combination of fast beams followed by gas stopping of rare-isotope beams together with reacceleration is unique to FRIB. Stopping techniques and beam manipulation at very-low energies are important to slow down fast beams for use in either stopped-beam experimental devices, or subsequent injection in the reaccelerator for experiments at energies ranging from 0.3 MeV/u to 12 MeV/u, depending on the Q/A of the ion. Innovative stopped-beam techniques to optimize the stopping and extraction efficiencies across a wide range of atomic numbers, as well as to reduce contamination and increase extraction speed, were developed. Reacceleration of those beams involve cooling, bunching, charge breeding and acceleration by a state-of-the-art superconducting reaccelerator, ReA. In this contribution we present the latest results of various gas stoppers and techniques to eliminate contaminants after reacceleration by the ReA.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Atomic- and Molecular-Scale Interphase Engineering for High-Performance Solid-State Batteries

Solid-state batteries (SSBs) promise a decisive advance beyond conventional Li-ion systems, yet their development remains constrained by persistent solid–solid interfacial instabilities that degrade performance and durability. Interfaces between solid electrolytes and both cathodes and Li metal often exhibit poor wettability, limited physical contact, and high charge–transfer resistance, leading to chemical decomposition, mechanical failure, and impedance growth. Overcoming these limitations requires interphase engineering with atomic-scale precision—capabilities that conventional coating methods cannot reliably deliver. Atomic layer deposition (ALD) and molecular layer deposition (MLD) uniquely meet this need by enabling ultrathin, conformal, and composition-tunable films that stabilize reactive surfaces, suppress parasitic reactions, and regulate Li-metal morphology. Importantly, this Perspective highlights ALD/MLD systems that have already demonstrated effectiveness in liquid-electrolyte cells and discusses how these validated strategies can be deliberately translated to solid-state architectures. By grounding future directions in experimentally proven concepts rather than speculative hypotheses, we outline how atomic- and molecular-scale design principles can accelerate the development of robust, high-performance SSB technologies.

atomic and molecular layer deposition↗