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DOE OSTI2022

Report on Depth-Dependent Q from Frequency-Dependent Lg Q

As a phase that travels through the crustal waveguide, Lg samples the velocity and attenuation structure of the crust. We have developed methods (Pasyanos et al., 2009a; Pasyanos et al., 2009b) to estimate Qp and Qs of the crust and upper mantle from the amplitudes of regional phases, and have applied it to a number of regions around the world, and over a broad frequency band (0.5 - 10 Hz). In prior attenuation modeling, Lg phase amplitudes are able to effectively distinguish the high Q (low attenuation) of old stable cratonic crust from the low Q (high attenuation) of more recently active tectonic regions. For a variety of purposes (e.g. waveform modeling, seismic hazard, etc.), it is useful to have more information on the depth-dependence of the Q structure in the crust. One obvious candidate for doing this is using the frequency-dependence information of Lg Q, in the manner of surface waves. Unfortunately, however, Lg samples the whole of the crust without much differentiation with respect to frequency that is characteristic of fundamental mode surface waves. Lg is generally thought to be the sum of supercritically reflected S-waves trapped in the crustal waveguide (e.g. Xie and Lay, 1994). The phase can also be modeled as a superposition of surface waves. At lower frequencies, it is primarily composed of fundamental and low-order surface waves, while at higher frequencies, it is comprised purely of many high-order surface waves. The low-order surface waves that comprise Lg in low frequency bands (< 1 Hz) are preferentially sensitive to shallow earth structure, such as sedimentary basins and upper crust, while high-order surface waves have a more homogenized sensitivity to the whole crust. Furthermore, at the lower frequencies, we might expect to see some differentiation in the sensitivity between early Lg (herein referred to as Lg1) and late Lg (referred to as Lg2) where the latter is comprised of lower-order surface waves and, hence, shallower structure. Therefore, we might expect to see the signature of shallow features, primarily the lower Q of sediments as compared to crystalline crust, at lower frequencies and in later arriving Lg amplitudes.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

NASA NTRS1993

Preliminary analysis of the JAPE ground vehicle test data with an artificial neural network classifier

Remotely sensing and classifying military vehicles in a battlefield environment have been the source of much research over the past 20 years. The ability to know where threat vehicles are located is an obvious advantage to military personnel. In the past active methods of ground vehicle detection such as radar have been used, but with the advancement of technology to locate these active sensors, passive sensors are preferred. Passive sensors detect acoustic emissions, seismic movement, electromagnetic radiation, etc., produced by the target and use this information to describe it. Deriving the mathematical models to classify vehicles in this manner has been, and is, quite complex and not always reliable. However, with the resurgence of artificial neural network (ANN) research in the past few years, developing models for this work may be a thing of the past. Preliminary results from an ANN analysis to the tank signatures recorded at the Joint Acoustic Propagation Experiment (JAPE) at the US Army White Sands Missile Range, NM, in July 1991, are presented.

Larsen, Nathan F.↗

DOE OSTI2020

Modulation of seismic noise near the San Jacinto fault in southern California: origin and observations of the cyclical time dependence and associated crustal properties

SUMMARY We examine the cyclic amplitude variation of seismic noise recorded by continuous three-component broad-band seismic data with durations spanning 91–713 d (2008–2011) from three different networks: Anza seismic network, IDA network and the transportable seismic array. These stations surround the San Jacinto Fault Zone (SJFZ) in southern California. We find the seismic noise amplitudes exhibit a cyclical variation between 0.3 and 7.2 Hz. The high-frequency (≥0.9 Hz) noise variations can be linked to human activity and are not a concern. Our primary interest is signals in the low frequencies (0.3–0.9 Hz), where the seismic noise is modulated by semi-diurnal tidal mode M2. These long-period (low-frequency) variations of seismic noise can be attributed to a temporal change of the ocean waves breaking at the shoreline, driven by ocean tidal loading. We focus on the M2 variation of seismic noise at f = 0.6 Hz, travelling distances of ∼92 km through the crust from offshore California to the inland Anza, California, region. Relative to the shoreline station, data from the inland stations show a phase lag of ∼ –12°, which we attribute to the cyclic change in M2 that can alter crustal seismic attenuation. We also find that for mode M2 at 0.6 Hz, the amplitude variations of the seismic quality factor (Q) depend on azimuth and varies from 0.22 per cent (southeast to northwest) to 1.28 per cent (northeast to southwest) with Q = 25 for Rayleigh waves. We propose the direction dependence of the Q variation at 0.6 Hz reflects the preferred orientation of subfaults parallel to the main faulting defined by the primarily N45°W strike of the SJFZ.

Geochemistry & Geophysics↗

NASA NTRS2020

Deep Learning Models for Planetary Seismicity Detection

Research in planetary seismology is fundamentally constrained by a lack of data. Seismo-logical science products of future missions can typically only be informed by theoretical signal/noise characteristics of the environment or likely Earth-analogues. Although objectives can be re-assessed after some initial data-collection upon lander arrival, transfer of high-resolution data back to Earth is costly on lander power usage. Over the last several years, development of GPU computing techniques and open-source high-level APIs have led to rapid advances in deep learning within the fields of computer vision, natural language processing, and collaborative filtering. These techniques are actively being adapted in seismology for a variety of tasks, including: earthquake detection, seismic phase discrimination, and ground-motion prediction. Until the recent detection of mars quakes during the Mars InSight mission, the only other measurements of seismicity recorded outside of Earth was on the Moon during the Apollo missions between 1969 to 1977. These unique data sets have been periodically revisited using new seismological methods, including ambient noise interferometry and Hidden Markov Models. Our objective is to develop a deep learning seismic detector and use it to catalog moonquakes from the Apollo 17 Lunar Seismic Profiling Experiment (LSPE) and compare the results with those obtained by other methods. Additionally, we will assess the accuracy tradeoff between using a training set of lunar data and one composed of Earth seismicity. In this document, we present preliminary results using a prototype classifier trained on a small set of earthquakes that was able to obtain detections for LSPE moonquakes with a greater accuracy than a recent study using Hidden Markov Models.

Civilini, F.↗

DOE OSTI2023

Interseismic Strain Accumulation between the Colorado Plateau and the Eastern California Shear Zone: Implications for the Seismic Hazard near Las Vegas, Nevada

ABSTRACT Crustal deformation in the central Basin and Range between the Colorado plateau and the Eastern California Shear Zone is active but slow, making it a challenge to assess how strain is distributed and crustal motion transferred. However, knowledge of strain rates is very important, particularly for addressing the seismic hazard for both the Las Vegas urban area and the site of the proposed Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository, in southern Nevada. Global Positioning System (GPS) data provide important constraints, particularly now that the GPS network in the area has substantially expanded in recent years. However, because deformation is slow, it is important to mitigate any transient tectonic and nontectonic signals to obtain the most accurate long-term interseismic motion and robust estimation of strain rates. We use data from all GPS stations in the region including both long-running continuous and semicontinuous stations. We model and remove postseismic displacements at these stations using source parameters for 41 events, dating back to the 1700 Cascadia megathrust earthquake, which contribute significantly to the deformation field within the central Basin and Range. We also remove correlated noise from the time series with the common-mode component imaging technique. We find that removal of both the postseismic transients and common-mode noise substantially reduces the uncertainties and spatial variation in the velocities. We find east–west extension across the Las Vegas Valley of 0.5–0.6 mm/yr. The interseismic strain rate field, calculated with the final velocities, reveals higher strain rates through southern Nevada than in previous studies, with rates within Las Vegas Valley of 8.5±2.4×10−9 yr−1. Our results also confirm shear along the Pahranagat shear zone, but the estimated amplitude is strongly affected by postseismic relaxation.

Geochemistry & Geophysics↗

DOE OSTI2021

Utilizing distributed acoustic sensing and ocean bottom fiber optic cables for submarine structural characterization

The sparsity of permanent seismic instrumentation in marine environments often limits the availability of subsea information on geohazards, including active fault systems, in both time and space. One sensing resource that provides observational access to the seafloor environment are existing networks of ocean bottom fiber optic cables; these cables, coupled to modern distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) systems, can provide dense arrays of broadband seismic observations capable of recording both seismic events and the ambient noise wavefield. Here, we report a marine DAS application which demonstrates the strength and limitation of this new technique on submarine structural characterization. Based on ambient noise DAS records on a 20 km section of a fiber optic cable offshore of Moss Landing, CA, in Monterey Bay, we extract Scholte waves from DAS ambient noise records using interferometry techniques and invert the resulting multimodal dispersion curves to recover a high resolution 2D shear-wave velocity image of the near seafloor sediments. We show for the first time that the migration of coherently scattered Scholte waves observed on DAS records can provide an approach for resolving sharp lateral contrasts in subsurface properties, particularly shallow faults and depositional features near the seafloor. Our results provide improved constraints on shallow submarine features in Monterey Bay, including fault zones and paleo-channel deposits, thus highlighting one of many possible geophysical uses of the marine cable network.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗

DOE OSTI2025

Prediction and Analysis of Utah FORGE Injection Activities using a Coupled Thermo-hydro-mechanical and Earthquake (THM+E) Modeling Workflow

A coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) numerical workflow that is capable of modeling seismic slip is critical for the successful development of enhanced geothermal systems (EGS). By integrating key physical processes, this workflow enables accurate simulation of temperature and pressure diffusions, stress changes, and induced seismicity. As a result, it serves as a vital tool for predicting induced seismicity and optimizing reservoir stimulation strategies. The Utah FORGE (Frontier Observatory for Research in Geothermal Energy) project, located near Milford, Utah, is a U.S. Department of Energy initiative aimed at advancing EGS technology. In April 2024, eight new stimulation stages (Stages 3R-10) were conducted in well 16A (injection well) subsequent to the first series of stimulation (Stages 1-3) performed in April, 2022. To monitor the induced seismicity, geophones were deployed in wells 58-32, 56-32, and 78B-32, while fiber optic cables were also installed in wells 16B, 78-32, and 78B-32 to collect microseismic data and detect frac hits Preliminary analyses of microseismic catalogs and fiber optic data suggest that the stimulated fractures in Stages 3R–6 closely align with that generated during Stage 3, indicating that the new stimulations were likely reactivating the previously stimulated fracture. To better understand the underlying process, a comprehensive modeling approach that can accurately capture thermal, hydrological, mechanical, and seismic responses is essential. In this work, we propose and utilize a coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical and earthquake (THM+E) simulation workflow to numerically investigate the stimulation activities on well 16A. The specific objective is to confirm whether the new stimulation stages (Stages 3R–6) reactivated fractures previously stimulated during Stage 3. For this purpose, we perform THM+E simulations individually for Stages 3, 3R, 4, and 5, incorporating the discrete fracture networks (DFNs) created by the plane-fitting technique based on the microseismic catalogs. The simulation workflow consists of two separate models: a THM model and an earthquake model, coupled in a one-way manner. Detailed descriptions of the workflow are provided in Section 3. Simulation results are presented in terms of injection pressure, permeability evolution, and predicted seismic catalogs, which are then compared with field data for further analyses. This report is structured as follows. In Section 2, we present detailed analyses of the field data and propose the hypothesis that the new stimulation stages (Stages 3R–6) were probably reactivating the previously stimulated fractures in Stage 3. In Section 3, we introduce the coupled THM+E workflow and the problem setup to validate our hypothesis, followed by the simulation results for each stage in Section 4. Meanwhile, discussions are included to analyze the model predictions and their comparison with field data. Lastly, we conclude the report and outline future plans in Section 5.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2022

Designing monitoring networks for local earthquakes

Abstract Seismic networks are essential for monitoring local earthquakes in connection to industrial activities, including wastewater injection and CO2 sequestration. Because these networks are typically deployed for short periods of time at specific sites, it is beneficial to develop best practices for efficient and effective installation and monitoring. Such standards are available for regional earthquake and microseismic monitoring, but not readily available for local scale (tens of kilometer scale) monitoring. Once the region of interest has been determined, the key parameters for establishing a network are available monitoring station locations, site noise, and site utility. Networks should be designed based on the project monitoring goals for earthquake magnitude and density. Herein, a network was established at the Patterson and Hartland Oil Fields in western Kansas in association with a US Department of Energy CarbonSAFE carbon capture and sequestration research project. We employed observations from an analog local network, the Wellington Earthquake Monitoring Network in south-central Kansas, to assess site noise and estimate earthquake detection thresholds for the Patterson and Hartland fields. Noise from oil production facilities was evaluated, concluding that oil lease sites are suitable for monitoring small local earthquakes (M1-M3). The network was designed to have a magnitude of completeness of M1 while using station locations on existing field operator leases. Fifteen months of continuous network operation demonstrates reliable and efficient local earthquake monitoring and provides best practices recommendations for similar operations.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

NASA NTRS1990

Plate motions and deformations from geologic and geodetic data

An analysis of geodetic data in the vicinity of the Crustal Dynamics Program (CDP) site at Vandenberg Air Force Base (VNDN) is presented. The utility of space-geodetic data in the monitoring of transient strains associated with earthquakes in tectonically active areas like California is investigated. Particular interest is in the possibility that space-geodetic methods may be able to provide critical new data on deformations precursory to large seismic events. Although earthquake precursory phenomena are not well understood, the monitoring of small strains in the vicinity of active faults is a promising technique for studying the mechanisms that nucleate large earthquakes and, ultimately, for earthquake prediction. Space-geodetic techniques are now capable of measuring baselines of tens to hundreds of kilometers with a precision of a few parts in 108. Within the next few years, it will be possible to record and analyze large-scale strain variations with this precision continuously in real time. Thus, space-geodetic techniques may become tools for earthquake prediction. In anticipation of this capability, several questions related to the temporal and spatial scales associated with subseismic deformation transients are examined.

Jordan, Thomas H.↗

DOE OSTI2022

Shallow Aseismic Slip in the Delaware Basin Determined by Sentinel-1 InSAR

The Delaware Basin, Texas is currently a hot-spot of induced seismicity and ground deformation due to fluid extraction and injection associated with horizontal drilling techniques; however, the driving mechanism behind the seismicity and deformation remains under debate. Here, using vertical and east-west horizontal surface deformation measurements derived from Sentinel-1 interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR), we show that the subsurface responds differently to oil and gas activity in the northern and southeastern portions of the basin. In the north, where there is little seismicity, deformation patterns display long-wavelengths and equidimensional patterns. In contrast, the southeast region hosts most of the seismicity and displays spatial deformation patterns with narrow linear features that strike parallel to the maximum principal horizontal stress and to trends in seismicity, suggesting movement along normal faults. We model a linear deformation feature using edge dislocations and show that the InSAR observations can be reproduced by slip on normal faults contained within the Delaware Mountain Group (DMG), the formation that hosts local wastewater injection and the majority of earthquakes. Our model consists of three parallel, high-angle normal faults, with two dipping toward one another in a graben structure. Slip magnitudes reach up to 25 cm and are spatially correlated with injection wells. Measured seismicity can only explain ~2% of the fault motion predicted by our fault model, suggesting that slip leading to the deformation is predominantly aseismic. We conclude that seismic and aseismic fault motion in the southeastern Delaware Basin is likely driven by wastewater injection near critically-stressed normal faults within the DMG.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2021

Widespread deep seismicity in the Delaware Basin, Texas, is mainly driven by shallow wastewater injection

Significance The Delaware Basin, western Texas, has experienced a surge in the number of earthquakes. We investigate basin-wide earthquake, hydrogeologic, industrial, and geodetic data spanning 1993–2020 to identify the reasons for the increase. We use these data and models to quantify the stress changes from wastewater injection and hydrocarbon extraction. We demonstrate that the basin-wide seismicity is dominated by the stresses caused by shallow injection that are transmitted vertically by deforming the underlying crust. We analyze both injection and production data to understand how subsurface properties control earthquake locations and timings. We suggest that injecting wastewater into porous formations will minimize seismic hazard. We establish a framework explaining why earthquakes sometimes occur and sometimes do not occur within human activity-impacted areas.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

NASA NTRS1996

Systematic Underestimation of Earthquake Magnitudes from Large Intracontinental Reverse Faults: Historical Ruptures Break Across Segment Boundaries

Because most large-magnitude earthquakes along reverse faults have such irregular and complicated rupture patterns, reverse-fault segments defined on the basis of geometry alone may not be very useful for estimating sizes of future seismic sources. Most modern large ruptures of historical earthquakes generated by intracontinental reverse faults have involved geometrically complex rupture patterns. Ruptures across surficial discontinuities and complexities such as stepovers and cross-faults are common. Specifically, segment boundaries defined on the basis of discontinuities in surficial fault traces, pronounced changes in the geomorphology along strike, or the intersection of active faults commonly have not proven to be major impediments to rupture. Assuming that the seismic rupture will initiate and terminate at adjacent major geometric irregularities will commonly lead to underestimation of magnitudes of future large earthquakes.

Rubin, C. M.↗

DOE OSTI2023

Earth Sciences Applications for Energy and Global Security: A Few Vignettes [Slides]

Understanding the physics of flow and transport in the subsurface environment is crucial to several National Security applications. In the Energy Security realm, some examples include characterizing radioactive waste disposal, exploring natural gas extraction and sequestering CO2. An example in the Global Security arena is to be able to distinguish between anthropogenic and naturally occurring seismic disturbances, the former being of particular concern as underground nuclear testing activity has seen an increase in recent years. A common theme across these applications is the ability to accurately model fluid flow in porous and/or fractured subsurface media. For decades, researchers have grappled with how to include the effects of uncertainties in these models, including but not limited to heterogeneity, unknown initial and boundary conditions and issues with scalability. More recently advances in computing and machine learning methodologies have allowed a broader exploration of the uncertainty space as we strive for real time decision making. I will present an overview of the field and discuss a few examples of how my own research in these topics has evolved over nearly two decades.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2023

Exploring for Superhot Geothermal Targets in Magmatic Settings: 2022 Field Campaign at Newberry Volcano

This paper presents preliminary results from a subset of work carried out as part of a multinational research project entitled DErisking Exploration for multiple geothermal Plays in magmatic ENvironments (DEEPEN), supported by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and Geothermica, a joint effort by EU member states and associated countries. The DEEPEN project will develop a customized approach to exploration for supercritical and superhot geothermal plays in magmatic systems, which will be applied to two demonstration sites. This paper summarizes field activities carried out at the U.S. demonstration site, Newberry Volcano in central Oregon. The objective of this work effort is to refine the subsurface model of Newberry Volcano, with special focus on deeper zones including the magmatic plumbing system and other key geologic elements. New data collection included gravity and wideband magnetotelluric (MT) surveys, as well as reinstallation of a seismic network. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and Enthalpion Energy LLC (Enthalpion) worked with the Deschutes National Forest Fort Rock District to use a low ground disturbance method of MT deployment to collect MT data inside the caldera and other restricted areas inside the National Volcanic Monument. This opened these areas to geophysical exploration for the first time in decades. Sites along and adjacent to the south rim of the volcano constituted the primary survey objectives. A team from Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), and AltaRock also began the process of reinstalling the seismic network from the AltaRock enhanced geothermal system (EGS) demonstration in anticipation of further development activities at the site. The data ingestion, reduction, and analysis phase of the project is ongoing. We are currently processing the MT and gravity data and are developing a new, highly GPU-accelerated, 3D joint MT and gravity inversion to better localize the south rim/south flank conductive target and better understand its relationship to deep heat, fluid sources, and surface extrusive features. Joint inversions, which have not yet been undertaken at Newberry, will allow us to obtain constraints on the geologic model that cannot be determined from each method in isolation, improving our ability to image key geologic features at depth.

geophysics↗

DOE OSTI2021

Wyoming CarbonSAFE: Advancing Commercialization of Low-Carbon Energy Technologies in Fossil-Rich Wyoming

Wyoming’s Powder River Basin (PRB) is the most prolific coal producer and exporter in the United States and the State of Wyoming’s largest oil-producing basin. In addition to being a leading energy producer, the PRB is the site of research programs whose aim is to develop and integrate low-carbon technologies into existing fossil fuel energy industries. Much of the PRB’s low-carbon research is focused around Dry Fork Station (DFS), which is the newest coal-fired power station in the western US. Currently, DFS hosts five carbon capture projects, including pilot-scale capture projects that utilize different capture technologies and a full front-end engineering and design (FEED) study, a commercial CO 2 pipeline for nearby CO 2 -enhanced oil recovery industry, and is also co-located with the Wyoming Integrated Test Center, which is a host facility for unconventional carbon utilization research (i.e. flue gas carbon-to-products innovations). DFS is also the host site for the Wyoming CarbonSAFE project. Wyoming CarbonSAFE, funded by the Department of Energy/National Energy Technology Laboratory, is a multi-phased program (currently in Phase II) whose core objective is developing and validating storage sites within a complex capable of storing 50 million metric tonnes of CO 2 over a 30 year project period using carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS). This paper will provide an overview of the project to-date, showing that CarbonSAFE goals are achievable with respect to geologic, environmental, regulatory, CO 2 source and economic conditions, and why the State of Wyoming offers one of the more favorable environments to advance the commercialization studies. In 2019, the project team designed and completed a ~10,000 foot stratigraphic test well just south of DFS. From this well, the team collected over 600 feet of core, fluid samples from target injection zones, and a full petrophysical log suite. In addition, legacy 2D seismic lines were acquired and a 3D seismic survey was acquired in the fall of 2020. The objective of these field activities has been to identify and characterize target storage reservoirs and associated caprock. This complex has several reservoirs that could meet commercial injection goals, and over 4000 feet of associated caprock. Simulations of site performance suggest that stacked injection provides the most effective storage strategy, and would necessitate several sites within the greater complex to meet final project injection goals. Other work within this project includes the development of a business-case around proximal fields with CO 2 -enhanced oil recovery potential and existing tax credits, assessment of regulatory conditions, including pore space ownership and Class VI injection well permitting requirements, implementation of a robust public outreach Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3821220 GHGT-15 McLaughlin 2 program, and surface site characterization activities that have focused on environmental factors. In the PRB and at DFS, the State of Wyoming and other entities have made carbon management a priority of its future energy industry by providing a regulatory and business framework that is favorable to advancing these technologies. These endeavors will become more realistic with the successful implementation of Wyoming CarbonSAFE, and its ability to secure and validate commercial-scale CCUS at the center of Wyoming’s premier low-carbon research efforts.

McLaughlin, Fred↗

DOE OSTI2020

Big Sky Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership (Phase III Final Scientific/Technical Report)

The Big Sky Carbon Sequestration Partnership (BSCSP) pursued a Phase III demonstration project at Kevin Dome in north central Montana. Kevin Dome covers approximately 700 square miles and is a naturally occurring CO 2 reservoir that is flanked by oil and gas fields. The carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is in the upper Devonian Duperow (carbonate) formation and does not reach the spill point of the dome; therefore, the dome has potential as a CO 2 sequestration reservoir, a CO 2 supply, or as both if anthropogenic sources and enhanced oil recovery (EOR) operations are associated with the dome. Kevin Dome could potentially act as a buffer to continue accepting anthropogenic CO 2 when EOR flooding operations are interrupted or completed. The project objective was to produce one million tonnes of CO 2 from the gas cap of Kevin Dome, pipe it laterally, inject, and re-store it in the brine leg of the same formation to test the hub / buffer storage concept. This was to be accomplished by drilling up to five production wells, building a short pipeline and compression facilities, and drilling an injection well and several monitoring wells. BSCSP commenced outreach and site characterization activities including acquiring baseline data for near-surface insurance monitoring, acquiring 3-dimensional, 9-component surface seismic over the project area, drilling two test wells (one in the production area and one in the injection area), coring key intervals, and performing comprehensive logging. Well tests of those wells revealed two barriers to the project. The production (Danielson 33-17) well was perforated in multiple zones but failed to produce any significant CO 2 . This was despite being drilled in the near vicinity of a historic well that had produced 3700 MCF per day in a drill stem test. Modeling indicated that this was likely due to a phase change during production causing a temperature drop resulting in hydrate and/or water ice formation that clogged the formation. Tests of the injection zone (Wallewein 22-1) well indicated total dissolved solids (TDS) slightly below the EPA required 10,000 parts per million (ppm) for a Class VI underground injection control permit. While the project was initiated before Class VI rules were promulgated, and this was an experimental project (seemingly qualified for a Class V permit), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) indicated that injection would require a Class VI permit. The low salinity result was unexpected as contours plotted based on regional formation water quality data indicated an expected TDS above 20,000 ppm, and wells between the recharge zone and the Wallewein well tested above 10,000 ppm. Faced with the inability to obtain an injection permit, the demonstration project could not proceed. However, the project had generated valuable samples and data on a large natural analog including 32 sq. mi. of 3-D, 9-C seismic, 430 ft. of carbonate core covering seven different depositional environments taken from areas with, and without the presence of CO 2 , 30 ft. of core of two caprocks, a tight carbonate and an anhydrite, a full set of modern logs on both wells, and well tests. DOE decided to re-scope the project around completing studies utilizing this data. This report covers both the initial scope and the re-scope (Task / Section numbers preceded with an R). While the report covers a wide range of project activities, highlights of this work include: Development of a geostatic model using neural nets to match well logs to facies and using multi-waveform seismic to inform reservoir heterogeneity; Unique mechanical testing of permeability – stress relationship in two caprock materials; Development of full waveform inversion to generate a high resolution velocity model; Model development for dual permeability (fracture and matrix) systems to better account for matrix-matrix interactions; Joint seismic wave inversion (including the first quadr-joint inversion) exhibiting better imaging of a challenging reservoir zone in stiff rock; Core flow and core flood results on a reactive carbonate; and Innovative laboratory measurements of seismic response of fractured core as a function of fluid fill.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2023

Identification of Faults Susceptible to Induced Seismicity (Final Report)

Central to the work documented in this report is the capability of geocellular models to represent the geologic conceptual model updated with fault identification from machine learning and joint inversion modeling of microseismic data measured and recorded as a consequence of CO 2 injection at a field demonstration site: the Illinois Basin - Decatur Project (IBDP). This work required seven unique geocellular models with 100s of simulated variations to gain a very high degree of confidence in the identification of geologic features present that contributed to induced microseismicity at IBDP. All forward modeling: pressure modeling, stress modeling, and seismic modeling used the same geologic conceptual model and representations of that model at different scales. The pressure modeling and poroelastic modeling created “snapshots” of pore pressure and stress field changes at different times during CO 2 injection, in which microseismic events were clustered (in time). These pressure and stress snapshots, within the framework and architecture of the geologic conceptual model via the geocellular model, informed the single fault and fault network models to ascertain the likelihood of fault movement (seismic or aseismic). The outcomes of the pressure, stress, and fault/fault network (seismic) modeling confirmed that the faults in the geologic conceptual model in Task 2 were likely the source of microseismic events measured at IBDP and acted as conduits for pressure to be transmitted from the injection interval into the Precambrian crystalline basement rock. This closely coordinated and integrated unique modeling approach was conducted to prove the viability of our proposed workflow 1) to better resolve crystalline basement faults, 2) detect subseismic faults that could be activated by injection, 3) increase the certainty in fault detection and their susceptibility to release seismic energy, and 4) understand transmission of pressure vertically from the well to the underlying fractured crystalline basement. The proposed methodology was effective in guiding an iterative process of calibrating forward modeling results based on similar geocellular models while honoring the geologic conceptual model (i.e., characterization data and knowledge of regional geology); this led to higher level of certainty in the identification of fault/faults zones to control seismicity and transmission of pressure to the regions of recorded and located injection induced seismicity.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

NASA NTRS1974

Lunar seismicity, structure, and tectonics

Natural seismic events have been detected by the long-period seismometers at Apollo stations 16, 14, 15, and 12 at annual rates of 3300, 1700, 800, and 700, respectively, with peak activity at 13- to 14-day intervals. The data are used to describe magnitudes, source characteristics, and periodic features of lunar seismicity. In a present model, the rigid lithosphere overlies an asthenosphere of reduced rigidity in which present-day partial melting is probable. Tidal deformation presumably leads to critical stress concentrations at the base of the lithosphere, where moonquakes are found to occur. The striking tidal periodicities in the pattern of moonquake occurrence and energy release suggest that tidal energy is the dominant source of energy released as moonquakes. Thus, tidal energy is dissipated by moonquakes in the lithosphere and probably by inelastic processes in the asthenosphere.

Lammlein, D. R.↗