Methods of Constructing Charts for Adjusting Test Results for the Compressive Strength of Plates for Differences in Material Properties
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LOADS - PLATES↗
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Strength and deformation properties of basaltic lava flows on planetary surfaces
Basaltic rocks are thought to constitute a volumetrically significant rock type on the Moon, Mercury, Mars, and Venus, in addition to the Earth. Spacecraft images of surfaces with known or suspected basaltic composition on these bodies, particularly on Venus, indicate that these rocks have been deformed in the brittle regime to form faults and perhaps dilatant cracks, in addition to folding and more distributed types of deformation. Predictions of brittle fracture or other types of deformation are made by comparing calculated stresses from a tectonic model to some criterion for rock strength. Common strength criteria used in the planetary science literature for near-surface deformation include a Griffith tensile-strength criterion for intact rock, a Mohr envelope for intact basalt, and a brittle strength envelope based on Byerlee's law of rock frictional resistance. However, planetary terrains of basaltic composition consist of much more than just intact basaltic rock. The aggregate basaltic material, termed the 'rock mass,' consists of both the intact rock and the associated fracture, faults, lithologic contacts, and other discontinuous surfaces. A basaltic rock mass is the relevant material for which strength properties must be defined and calculated model stresses must be compared to in order to more accurately predict brittle deformation. For example, the various strengths of a rock mass are less than that of intact material of the same composition. This means that tectonic models which compare stresses to intact failure strengths overestimate the stresses required for fracture and so underestimate the extent and magnitude of brittle deformation predicted in these models. On the other hand, rock mass shear strength can be greater than that predicted from Byerlee's law. The concept of rock mass strength is central to many engineering design studies in which calculated stresses are used to predict brittle fracture, and this experience indicates that brittle strength envelopes which assume properties for intact rock (Griffith parabolas) or sliding along a single, continuous surface (Byerlee's law) inadequately characterize the tensile, compressive, and shear strengths of rock masses. The criterion adopted here to relate stresses to rock mass fracture is based on a Griffith-type curve for tensile normal stress and a concave downward curve for compressive normal stress. It is the only available criterion that explicitly considers the weakening effects of discontinuities within the rock mass on the stress state required for fracture.
Schultz, Richard A.↗
Tensegrity and mechanoregulation: from skeleton to cytoskeleton
OBJECTIVE: To elucidate how mechanical stresses that are applied to the whole organism are transmitted to individual cells and transduced into a biochemical response. DESIGN: In this article, we describe fundamental design principles that are used to stabilize the musculoskeletal system at many different size scales and show that these design features are embodied in one particular form of architecture that is known as tensegrity. RESULTS: Tensegrity structures are characterized by use of continuous tension and local compression; architecture, prestress (internal stress prior to application of external force), and triangulation play the most critical roles in terms of determining their mechanical stability. In living organisms, use of a hierarchy of tensegrity networks both optimizes structural efficiency and provides a mechanism to mechanically couple the parts with the whole: mechanical stresses applied at the macroscale result in structural rearrangements at the cell and molecular level. CONCLUSION: Due to use of tensegrity architecture, mechanical stress is concentrated and focused on signal transducing molecules that physically associate with cell surface molecules that anchor cells to extracellular matrix, such as integrins, and with load-bearing elements within the internal cytoskeleton and nucleus. Mechanochemical transduction may then proceed through local stress-dependent changes in molecular mechanics, thermodynamics, and kinetics within the cell. In this manner, the entire cellular response to stress may be orchestrated and tuned by altering the prestress in the cell, just as changing muscular tone can alter mechanical stability and structural coordination throughout the whole musculoskeletal system.
NASA Discipline Cell Biology↗
Computation of turbulent high speed mixing layers using a two-equation turbulence model
A two-equation turbulence model was extended to be applicable for compressible flows. A compressibility correction based on modelling the dilational terms in the Reynolds stress equations were included in the model. The model is used in conjunction with the SPARK code for the computation of high speed mixing layers. The observed trend of decreasing growth rate with increasing convective Mach number in compressible mixing layers is well predicted by the model. The predictions agree well with the experimental data and the results from a compressible Reynolds stress model. The present model appears to be well suited for the study of compressible free shear flows. Preliminary results obtained for the reacting mixing layers are included.
Narayan, J. R.↗
Study of Size Effect in Sheet-stringer Panels
An investigation was conducted to determine whether there are significant size effects in compressive strength of large Z-stiffened sheet-stringer panels as compared with geometrically similar smaller models and thus to ascertain whether the prediction of the strength of large panels by model tests is reliable. The specimens studied were manufactured from 7075-T6 aluminum alloy and included four representative types of panel designs, with full- and one-quarter-scale panels of each type.
LOADS AND STRESSES, STRUCTURAL - COMPRESSION↗
Compressive buckling of flat rectangular plates supported by rigid posts
Results of a theoretical investigation of the compressive buckling of flat, rectangular, simply supported plates supported in the interior by equally spaced rows of rigid posts are presented. It is found that the plates buckle as if simply supported along all of the transverse lines or else all of the longitudinal lines passing through the rigid posts, the occurrence of the one buckling mode or the other depending on the number and spacing of the posts.
LOADS AND STRESSES, STRUCTURAL - COMPRESSION↗
Procedures for characterizing an alloy and predicting cyclic life with the total strain version of Strainrange Partitioning
Procedures are presented for characterizing an alloy and predicting cyclic life for isothermal and thermomechanical fatigue conditions by using the total strain version of strainrange partitioning (TS-SRP). Numerical examples are given. Two independent alloy characteristics are deemed important: failure behavior, as reflected by the inelastic strainrange versus cyclic life relations; and flow behavior, as indicated by the cyclic stress-strain-time response (i.e., the constitutive behavior). Failure behavior is characterized by conducting creep-fatigue tests in the strain regime, wherein the testing times are reasonably short and the inelastic strains are large enough to be determined accurately. At large strainranges, stress-hold, strain-limited tests are preferred because a high rate of creep damage per cycle is inherent in this type of test. At small strainranges, strain-hold cycles are more appropriate. Flow behavior is characterized by conducting tests wherein the specimen is usually cycled far short of failure and the wave shape is appropriate for the duty cycle of interest. In characterizing an alloy pure fatigue, or PP, failure tests are conducted first. Then depending on the needs of the analyst a series of creep-fatigue tests are conducted. As many of the three generic SRP cycles are featured as are required to characterize the influence of creep on fatigue life (i.e., CP, PC, and CC cycles, respectively, for tensile creep only, compressive creep only, and both tensile and compressive creep). Any mean stress effects on life also must be determined and accounted for when determining the SRP inelastic strainrange versus life relations for cycles featuring creep. This is particularly true for small strainranges. The life relations thus are established for a theoretical zero mean stress condition.
Saltsman, James F.↗
High-temperature compressive deformation equipment.
High temperature compressive deformation equipment for ceramic materials noting loading, alignment and stress-strain measurement
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM↗
NOLIN: A nonlinear laminate analysis program
A nonlinear, plane-stress, laminate analysis program, NOLIN, was developed which accounts for laminae nonlinearity under inplane shear and transverse extensional stress. The program determines the nonlinear stress-strain behavior of symmetric laminates subjected to any combination of inplane shear and biaxial extensional loadings. The program has the ability to treat different stress-strain behavior in tension and compression, and predicts laminate failure using any or all of maximum stress, maximum strain, and quadratic interaction failure criteria. A brief description of the program is presented including discussion of the flow of information and details of the input required. Sample problems and a complete listing of the program is also provided.
Kibler, J. J.↗
Unique Aeolian Transport Mechanisms on Mars: Respective Roles of Percussive and Repercussive Grain Populations in the Sediment Load
Experiments show that when sand-size grains impact a sediment surface with energy levels commensurate for Mars, small craters are formed by the ejection of several hundred grains from the bed. The experiments were conducted with a modified crossbow in which a sand-impelling sabot replaced the bolt-firing mechanism. Individual grains of sand could be fired at loose sand targets to observe ballistic effects unhindered by aerodynamic mobilization of the bed. Impact trajectories simulated the saltation process on dune surfaces. Impact craters were not elongated despite glancing (15 deg.) bed impact; the craters were very close to being circular. High-speed photography showed them to grow in both diameter and depth after the impactor had ricochetted from the crater site. The delayed response of the bed was "explosive" in nature, and created a miniature ejecta curtain spreading upward and outward for many centimeters for impact of 100-300 um-diameter grains into similar material. This behavior is explained by deposition of elastic energy in the bed by the "percussive" grain. Impact creates a subsurface stress regime or "quasi-Boussinesq" compression field. Elastic recovery of the bed occurs by dilatancy; shear stresses suddenly convert the grains to open packing and they consequently become forcefully ejected from the site. Random jostling of the grains causes radial homogenization of stress vectors and a resulting circular crater. A stress model based on repercussive bed dilatancy and interparticle adhesive forces (for smaller grains) predicts, to first order, the observed crater volumes for various impact conditions. On earth, only a few grains are mobilized by a percussive saltating grain; some grains are "knudged" along the ground, and some are partly expelled on short trajectories. These motions constitute reptation transport. On Mars, saltation and reptation become indistinct: secondary or "repercussive" trajectories have sufficient vertical impulse to create a dense saltation population of many tens or hundreds of grains for each single high-speed saltation percussion of the bed. Impact cascading will lead to near-surface distortion of the boundary layer, and choked flow formed by a dense "slurry" of sand, with the majority of grains mobilized by repercussive forces rather than by aerodynamic lift. This proceeds until a fully-matured transport layer imposes self-limitations as grain-population density constrains the free-path motion of individial grains.
Marshall, John R.↗
Aeolian Sand Transport in the Planetary Context: Respective Roles of Aerodynamic and Bed-Dilatancy Thresholds
The traditional view of aeolian sand transport generally estimates flux from the perspective of aerodynamic forces creating the airborne grain population, although it has been recognized that "reptation" causes a significant part of the total airborne flux; reptation involves both ballistic injection of grains into the air stream by the impact of saltating grains as well as the "nudging" of surface grains into a creeping motion. Whilst aerodynamic forces may initiate sand motion, it is proposed here that within a fully-matured grain cloud, flux is actually governed by two thresholds: an aerodynamic threshold, and a bed-dilatancy threshold. It is the latter which controls the reptation population, and its significance increases proportionally with transport energy. Because we only have experience with terrestrial sand transport, extrapolations of aeolian theory to Mars and Venus have adjusted only the aerodynamic factor, taking gravitational forces and atmospheric density as the prime variables in the aerodynamic equations, but neglecting reptation. The basis for our perspective on the importance of reptation and bed dilatancy is a set of experiments that were designed to simulate sand transport across the surface of a martian dune. Using a modified sporting crossbow in which a sand-impelling sabot replaced the bolt-firing mechanism, individual grains of sand were fired at loose sand targets with glancing angles typical of saltation impact; grains were projected at about 80 m/s to simulate velocities commensurate with those predicted for extreme martian aeolian conditions. The sabot impelling method permitted study of individual impacts without the masking effect of bed mobilization encountered in wind-tunnel studies. At these martian impact velocities, grains produced small craters formed by the ejection of several hundred grains from the bed. Unexpectedly, the craters were not elongated, despite glancing impact; the craters were very close to circular in planform. High-speed photography showed them to grow in both diameter and depth after the impactor had ricochetted from the crater site. The delayed response of the bed was "explosive" in nature, and created a miniature ejecta curtain spreading upward and outward for many centimeters for impact of 100-300 micron-diameter grains into similar material. Elastic energy deposited in the bed by the impacting grain creates a subsurface stress regime or "quasi-Boussinesq" compression field. Elastic recovery of the bed occurs by dilatancy; shear stresses suddenly convert the grains from closed to open packing, and grains are consequently able to eject themselves forcefully from the impact site. Random jostling of the grains causes radial homogenization of stress vectors and a resulting circular crater. There is a great temptation to draw parallels with cratering produced by meteorite impacts, but a rigorous search for common modelling ground between the two phenomena has not been conducted at this time. For every impact of an aerodynamically energized grain, there are several hundred grains ejected into the wind for the high-energy transport that might occur on Mars. Many of these grains will themselves become subject to the boundary layer's aerodynamic lift forces (their motion will not immediately die and add to the creep population), and these grains will become indistinguishable from those lifted entirely by aerodynamic forces. As each grain impacts the bed, it will eject even more grains into the flow. A cascading effect will take place, but because it must be finite in its growth, damping will occur as the number of grains set in motion causes mid-air collisions that prevent much of the impact energy from reaching the surface of the bed -thus creating a dynamic equilibrium in a high-density saltation cloud. It is apparent that for a given impact energy, the stress field permits a smaller volume of grains to convert to open packing as the size of the bed grains increases, or as the energy of the "percussive" grain decreases (by decrease in velocity or mass). Thus, the mass of the "repercussive" grain population that is ejected from the impact site becomes a function of the scale of the stress field in relation to the scale of the bed material (self-similarity being applicable if both bed size and energy are simultaneously adjusted). In other words, in a very high energy aeolian system where an aerodynamically raised grain can ballistically raise many more grains, the amount of material lifted into the wind becomes largely a function of a dilatancy threshold. If this threshold is exceeded, grains are repercussively injected into the saltation cloud. The "dilatancy threshold" may be defined in terms of the saltation percussive force required to convert the bed, through elastic response, from a closed to an open packing system. If open packing cannot be created, the grains cannot escape from the impact site, even though the elastic deformation and percussive force may be able to reorganize the grains with respect to one another. As the crossbow experiments showed, for an ever-increasing bed grain size, a point is reached when no material can be moved because the energy of the percussive grain is insufficient to dilate the relatively coarse bed. Although this seems to be stating the obvious -- that too little energy will not cause the bed to splash -- the consequences of exceeding the "splash threshold" by dilatancy are not so obvious for high-energy aeolian transport. It is noted that the force required to elastically dilate the bed has to overcome Coulombic grain attractions such as dipole-dipole coupling, dielectric, monopole, contact-induced dipole attractions, van der Waals forces, molecular monolayer capillary forces, as well as the mechanical interlocking frictional resistance of the grains. On Mars, it is predicted that the dilatancy threshold may be the prime control of grain flux. Additional information is contained in the original.
Marshall, J. R.↗
Unique Aeolian Transport Mechanisms on Mars: Respective Roles of Percussive and Repercussive Grain Populations in the Sediment Load
Experiments show that when sand-size grains impact a sediment surface with energy levels commensurate for Mars, small craters are formed by the ejection of several hundred grains from the bed. The experiments were conducted with a modified crossbow in which a sand-impelling sabot replaced the bolt-firing mechanism. Individual grains of sand could be fired at loose sand targets to observe ballistic effects unhindered by aerodynamic mobilization of the bed. Impact trajectories simulated the saltation process on dune surfaces. Impact craters were not elongated despite glancing (15 deg.) bed impact; the craters were very close to being circular. High-speed photography showed them to grow in both diameter and depth after the impactor had ricochetted from the crater site. The delayed response of the bed was "explosive" in nature, and created a miniature ejecta curtain spreading upward and outward for many centimeters for impact of 100-300 micron-diameter grains into similar material. This behavior is explained by deposition of elastic energy in the bed by the "percussive" grain. Impact creates a subsurface stress regime or "quasi-Boussinesq" compression field. Elastic recovery of the bed occurs by dilatancy; shear stresses suddenly convert the grains to open packing and they consequently become forcefully ejected from the site. Random jostling of the grains causes radial homogenization of stress vectors and a resulting circular crater. A stress model based on repercussive bed dilatancy and interparticle adhesive forces (for smaller grains) predicts, to first order, the observed crater volumes for various impact conditions. On earth, only a few grains are mobilized by a percussive saltating grain; some grains are "knudged" along the ground, and some are partly expelled on short trajectories. These motions constitute reptation transport. On Mars, saltation and reptation become indistinct: secondary or "repercussive" trajectories have sufficient vertical impulse to create a dense saltation population of many tens or hundreds of grains for each single high-speed saltation percussion of the bed. Impact cascading will lead to near-surface distortion of the boundary layer, and choked flow formed by a dense "slurry" of sand, with the majority of grains mobilized by repercussive forces rather than by aerodynamic lift. This proceeds until a fully-matured transport layer imposes self- limitations as grain-population density constrains the free-path motion of individual grains.
Marshall, John R.↗
Elastoplastic transverse properties of a unidirectional fibre reinforced composite
An approximate theoretical study is made to predict the overall transverse elastoplastic properties of a unidirectional fibre reinforced composite. Based on the simplest deformation theory of plasticity, the overall transverse polyaxial elastoplastic constitutive equations for an incompressible composite are obtained. A simple formula is suggested to evaluate the average stress in the fibres. Furthermore, with the prediction of the overall transverse elastic moduli of a compressible composite, the overall transverse uniaxial stress-strain curve for a compressible composite in the entire elastic-plastic range is obtained. A detailed example is given for a Boron-Aluminum composite. Comparison is made with the experimental and theoretical work done by General Dynamics and Adams respectively.
Huang, W.-C.↗
Residual stress characterization with an ultrasonic/magnetic technique
A potentially useful new technique for residual stress characterization in ferromagnetic material is described. The unique feature of this technique is the measurement of small changes in ultrasonic wave velocity by the application of external dc magnetic field in the material under various stress conditions. It was found, in steel, that the fractional change in the natural velocity Delta W/W of waves propagating along the external field direction is affected by the uniaxial stress applied in the same axis. External compression lowers the slope of the Delta W/W curve in the low field region, while external tension generally does the opposite. For most cases, the slope in this region falls below zero under external compression. The result of measurements in specimens with residual stress shows exactly the same tendency.
Namkung, M.↗
Turbulent properties of a compressible boundary layer.
Turbulent shear-stress, eddy-viscosity, mixing-length, heat-flux and Prandtl number distributions across a hypersonic turbulent boundary layer have been determined from the 'time-averaged' conservation equations using experimental mean profile data obtained at several streamwise locations in a fully developed turbulent boundary layer with negligible pressure gradient. The eddy-viscosity, mixing-length and Prandtl number results show general agreement with previous incompressible and adiabatic compressible correlations. However, when the turbulent Prandtl number is defined using total enthalpy as opposed to static enthalpy no clear correlation of the results in the outer portion of the boundary layer could be obtained.
Horstman, C. C.↗
Post-buckling state and stress concentration in annular plates
Post-buckling state and stress concentration in annular plates
ANNULAR PLATE↗
Improved method for cladding the inside of metal tubes
Creep characteristics of molybdenum at high temperature and stress are utilized to compress tungsten foil liner against inner surface of tantalum alloy cylinder to form bond at interface. Temperature and pressure can be accurately controlled and size of workpiece is limited only by furnace size.
Maag, W. L.↗
Design and fabrication of a boron reinforced intertank skirt
Analytical and experimental studies were performed to evaluate the structural efficiency of a boron reinforced shell, where the medium of reinforcement consists of hollow aluminum extrusions infiltrated with boron epoxy. Studies were completed for the design of a one-half scale minimum weight shell using boron reinforced stringers and boron reinforced rings. Parametric and iterative studies were completed for the design of minimum weight stringers, rings, shells without rings and shells with rings. Computer studies were completed for the final evaluation of a minimum weight shell using highly buckled minimum gage skin. The detail design is described of a practical minimum weight test shell which demonstrates a weight savings of 30% as compared to an all aluminum longitudinal stiffened shell. Sub-element tests were conducted on representative segments of the compression surface at maximum stress and also on segments of the load transfer joint. A 10 foot long, 77 inch diameter shell was fabricated from the design and delivered for further testing.
Henshaw, J.↗