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NASA NTRS2011

Navigation Strategies for Primitive Solar System Body Rendezvous and Proximity Operations

A wealth of scientific knowledge regarding the composition and evolution of the solar system can be gained through reconnaissance missions to primitive solar system bodies. This paper presents analysis of a baseline navigation strategy designed to address the unique challenges of primitive body navigation. Linear covariance and Monte Carlo error analysis was performed on a baseline navigation strategy using simulated data from a· design reference mission (DRM). The objective of the DRM is to approach, rendezvous, and maintain a stable orbit about the near-Earth asteroid 4660 Nereus. The outlined navigation strategy and resulting analyses, however, are not necessarily limited to this specific target asteroid as they may he applicable to a diverse range of mission scenarios. The baseline navigation strategy included simulated data from Deep Space Network (DSN) radiometric tracking and optical image processing (OpNav). Results from the linear covariance and Monte Carlo analyses suggest the DRM navigation strategy is sufficient to approach and perform proximity operations in the vicinity of the target asteroid with meter-level accuracy.

Getzandanner, Kenneth M.↗
NASA NTRS2008

Miniature Mass Spectrometers on Space and Planetary Missions

Space flight mass spectrometers contribute our understanding of the origin and evolution of our solar system and even of life itself. This fundamental role has motivated increasing interest in miniature mass spectrometry for planetary missions. Several remarkable new instruments are en route or under development to investigate the composition of planetary bodies such as Mars and comets. For instance, the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) suite on the 2009 Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission includes a quadrupole mass spectrometer with a sophisticated gas processing system as well as pyrolysis and chemical derivatization protocols for solid samples. Future missions will require even lighter, lower power, and yet more capable mass spectrometers, particularly to analyze samples in situ on planetary surfaces. We have been developing laser-based mass spectrometers for elemental and organic/molecular analysis of rock, ice, or fine particle samples. These typically use time-of-flight (TOF) mass analyzers, which are readily miniaturized and can detect both atomic species and complex organics that occur in a variety of planetary materials. For example, nonvolatile polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and kerogen-like macromolecular carbon are found in some carbonaceous meteorites, which derived from asteroid parent bodies. A single focused laser pulse is able to volatilize and ionize some of these compounds for direct TOF analysis. While this is possible without any sample preparation or contact, sensitivity and quantitative performance can improve significantly with some sample handling. As such we have also been examining robotic mechanisms and protocols to accompany space flight mass spectrometers. In addition, sensors in early development may significantly improve these capabilities, via use of techniques such as switchable polarity, ambient pressure, or resonant ionization; tandem mass spectrometry (TOF or ion trap); and chemical imaging.

Brinckerhoff, William↗
NASA NTRS2010

Human and Robotic Exploration of Near-Earth Objects

A study in late 2006 was sponsored by the Advanced Projects Office within NASA's Constellation Program to examine the feasibility of sending the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle to a near-Earth object (NEO). The ideal mission profile would involve two or three astronauts on a 90 to 180 day flight, which would include a 7 to 14 day stay for proximity operations at the target NEO. More recently U.S. President Obama stated on April 15, 2010 that the next goal for human spaceflight will be to send human beings to a near-Earth asteroid by 2025. Given this direction from the White House, NASA has been involved in studying various strategies for NEO exploration in order to follow U.S. space exploration policy. Prior to sending a human mission, a series of robotic spacecraft would be launched to reduce the risk to crew, and enhance the planning for the proximity and surface operations at the NEO. The human mission would ideally follow five or more years later. This mission would be the first human expedition to an interplanetary body beyond the Earth-Moon system and would prove useful for testing technologies required for human missions to Mars and other solar system destinations. Piloted missions to NEOs would undoubtedly provide a great deal of technical and engineering data on spacecraft operations for future human space exploration while conducting in-depth scientific investigations of these primitive objects. The main scientific advantage of sending piloted missions to NEOs would be the flexibility of the crew to perform tasks and to adapt to situations in real time. A crewed vehicle would be able to test several different sample collection techniques and target specific areas of interest via extra-vehicular activities (EVAs) more efficiently than robotic spacecraft. Such capabilities greatly enhance the scientific return from these missions to NEOs, destinations vital to understanding the evolution and thermal histories of primitive bodies during the formation of the early solar system. Data collected from these missions would help constrain the suite of materials possibly delivered to the early Earth, and would identify potential source regions from which NEOs originate. In addition, the resulting scientific investigations would refine designs for future extraterrestrial resource extraction and utilization, and assist in the development of hazard mitigation techniques for planetary defense.

Abell, Paul A.↗
NASA NTRS2012

Lunar and Meteorite Thin Sections for Undergraduate and Graduate Studies

The Johnson Space Center (JSC) has the unique responsibility to curate NASA's extraterrestrial samples from past and future missions. Curation includes documentation, preservation, preparation, and distribution of samples for research, education, and public outreach. Between 1969 and 1972 six Apollo missions brought back 382 kilograms of lunar rocks, core samples, pebbles, sand and dust from the lunar surface. JSC also curates meteorites collected on US expeditions to Antarctica including rocks from Moon, Mars, and many asteroids including Vesta. Studies of rock and soil samples from the Moon and meteorites continue to yield useful information about the early history of the Moon, the Earth, and the inner solar system.

Allen, J.↗
NASA NTRS2013

Insights into Collisional between Small Bodies: Comparison of Impacted Magnesium-rich Minerals

Impacts are sustained by comets and asteroids throughout their lives, especially early in the Solar system's history, as described by the Nice model. Identifying observable properties that may be altered due to impacts can lead to a better understanding their collisional histories. Here, we investigate spectral effects and physical shock features observed in infrared spectra and Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) images, respectively, of magnesium-rich minerals subjected to shock through impact experiments. Samples of magnesium-rich forsterite (Mg2SiO4, olivine), orthoenstatite (Mg2SiO3, pyroxene), diopside (MgCaSi2O6, monoclinic pyroxene), and magnesite (MgCO3, carbonate) were impacted at speeds of 2.4 km/s, 2.6 km/s and 2.8 km/s. Impact experiments were conducted in the Johnson Space Center Experimental Impact Laboratory using the vertical gun. Clear signatures are observed in both the mid-IR spectra (shift in wavelengths of the spectral peaks and relative amplitude changes) of all minerals except magnesite, and in TEM images (planar dislocations) of both the forsterite and orthoenstatite samples. Further discussion on forsterite and enstatite analyses can be found in Jensen et al., this meeting.

Lederer, Susan M.↗
NASA NTRS2021

Hydrothermal History of (162173) Ryugu’s Parent Body Inferred from Remote-Sensing Data

Small rubble pile asteroids record the thermal evolution of their much larger parent bodies. However, recent space weathering and/or solar heating create ambiguities between the uppermost layer observable by remote-sensing and the pristine material from the parent body. Hayabusa2 remote-sensing observations find that on the asteroid (162173) Ryugu both north and south pole regions preserve the least space-weathered material, which is spectrally blue carbonaceous chondritic material with a 0 – 3% deep 0.7-μm band absorption, indicative of Fe-bearing phyllosilicates . We report that spectrally blue Ryugu’s parent body experienced intensive aqueous alteration and subsequent thermal metamorphism at 570 – 670 K (300 – 400 ˚C), suggesting that Ryugu’s parent body was heated by radioactive decay of short-lived radionuclides possibly because of its early formation 2-2.5 Ma. The samples being brought to Earth by Hayabusa2 will give us our first insights into this epoch in solar system history. Moreover, we found the NUV-VIS spectral similarity between Ryugu and Polana–Eulalia family members, suggesting plausible origin from inner main belt predicted by the dynamical simulation.

Eri Tatsumi↗
NASA NTRS1997

Adaptive Optics Imaging of Solar System Objects

Most solar system objects have never been observed at wavelengths longer than the R band with an angular resolution better than 1 sec. The Hubble Space Telescope itself has only recently been equipped to observe in the infrared. However, because of its small diameter, the angular resolution is lower than that one can now achieved from the ground with adaptive optics, and time allocated to planetary science is limited. We have been using adaptive optics (AO) on a 4-m class telescope to obtain 0.1 sec resolution images solar system objects at far red and near infrared wavelengths (0.7-2.5 micron) which best discriminate their spectral signatures. Our efforts has been put into areas of research for which high angular resolution is essential, such as the mapping of Titan and of large asteroids, the dynamics and composition of Neptune stratospheric clouds, the infrared photometry of Pluto, Charon, and close satellites previously undetected from the ground.

Roddier, Francois↗
NASA NTRS1994

Cometary Coma Chemical Composition (C4) Mission

Cometary exploration remains of great importance to virtually all of space science. Because comets are presumed to be remnants of the early solar nebula, they are expected to provide fundamental knowledge as to the origin and development of the solar system as well as to be key to understanding of the source of volatiles and even life itself in the inner solar system. Clearly the time for a detailed study of the composition of these apparent messages from the past has come. A comet rendezvous mission, the Cometary Coma Chemical Composition (C4) Mission, is now being studied as a candidate for the new Discovery program. This mission is a highly-focussed and usefully-limited subset of the Cometary Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby (CRAF) Mission. The C4 mission will concentrate on measurements that will produce an understanding of the composition and physical makeup of a cometary nucleus. The core science goals of the C4 mission are 1) to determine the chemical, elemental, and isotopic composition of a cometary nucleus and 2) to characterize the chemical and isotopic nature of its atmosphere. A related goal is to obtain temporal information about the development of the cometary coma as a function of time and orbital position. The four short-period comets -- Tempel 1, Tempel 2, Churyumov-Gerasimenko, and Wirtanen -which all appear to have acceptable dust production rates, were identified as candidate targets. Mission opportunities have been identified beginning as early as 1998. Tempel I with a launch in 1999, however, remains the baseline comet for studies of and planning the C4 mission. The C4 mission incorporates two science instruments and two engineering instruments in the payload to obtain the desired measurements. The science instruments include an advanced version of the Cometary Ice and Dust Experiment (CIDEX), a mini-CIDEX with a sample collection system, an X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer and a Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatograph, and a simplified version of the Neutral Gas and Ion Mass Spectrometer (NIGMS). Both of these instruments have substantial heritage as they are based on those developed for the CRAF Mission. The engineering instruments include a simplified Comet Dust Environmental Monitor (SCODEM) and a navigational Camera, NAVCAM. While neither of the instruments will be permitted to establish science requirements, it is anticipated that significant science return will be accomplished Radio science will also be included.

Carle, Glenn C.↗
NASA NTRS1977

Star dust

Recent infrared techniques have revealed that the dust which is a major constituent of the universe, is composed of refractory grains produced by certain classes of stars, condensed in their atmospheres and blown into interstellar space by the radiation pressure of these stars. In some cases stars are surrounded by dust shells which consist of carbon refractories in the case of a carbon-rich environment, and metallic silicates of the kind that produced terrestrial planets in the case of oxygen-rich environments. A few of these infrared stars (called cygnids) exhibit a unique morphology that suggests the formation of a planetary stage in the evolution of a planetary nebula. Comets which are bright in the infrared and believed to be the remnants of the most primitive material in the solar nebula, are found to inject the astrophysical dust into our solar system together with asteroidal debris. Certain novae are also found to condense grains which are blown out in their shells after the explosion.

Ney, E. P.↗
NASA NTRS1991

Goldstone Solar System Radar (GSSR)

The primary objective of the Goldstone Solar System Radar is the investigation of solar system bodies by means of Earth-based radar. Targets of primary interest include the Galilean moons, Saturn's rings and moons, and Earth-approaching asteroids and comets. Planets are also of interest, particularly Mercury and the planets to which NASA has not yet planned spacecraft visits. Based on a history of solid achievement, including the definition of the Astronomical Unit, imaging and topography of Mars, Venus, and Mercury, and contributions to the general theory of relativity, the program will continue to support flight project requirements and its primary objectives. The individual target objectives are presented, and information on the following topics are presented in tabular form: Deep Space Network support, compatibility tests, telemetry, command, and tracking support responsibility.

Renzetti, N. A.↗
NASA NTRS2006

AstroBiology Explorer Mission Concepts (ABE/ASPIRE)

The AstroBiology Explorer (ABE) and the Astrobiology Space InfraRed Explorer (ASPIRE) Mission Concepts are two missions designed to address the questions (1) Where do we come from? and (2) Are we alone? as outlined in NASA s Origins Program using infrared spectroscopy to explore the identity, abundance, and distribution of molecules of astrobiological importance throughout the Universe. The ABE mission s observational program is focused on six tasks to: (1) Investigate the evolution of ice and organics in dense clouds and star formation regions, and the young stellar/planetary systems that form in them; (2) Measure the evolution of complex organic molecules in stellar outflows; (3) Study the organic composition of a wide variety of solar system objects including asteroids, comets, and the planets and their satellites; (4) Identify organic compounds in the diffuse interstellar medium and determine their distribution , abundance, and change with environment; (5) Detect and identify organic compounds in other galaxies and determine their dependence on galactic type; and (6) Measure deuterium enrichments in interstellar organics and use them as tracers of chemical processes. The ASPIRE mission s observational program expands upon ABE's core mission and adds tasks that (7) Address the role of silicates in interstellar organic chemistry; and (8) Use different resolution spectra to assess the relative roles and abundances of gas- and solid-state materials. ABE (ASPIRE) achieves these goals using a highly sensitive, cryogenically-cooled telescope in an Earth drift-away heliocentric orbit, armed with a suite of infrared spectrometers that cover the 2.5-20(40) micron spectral region at moderate spectral resolution (R>2000). ASPIRE's spectrometer complement also includes a high-resolution (R>25,000) module over the 4-8 micron spectral region. Both missions target lists are chosen to observe a statistically significant sample of a large number of objects of varied types in support of the tasks outline above. The ABE and ASPIRE mission lifetimes are designed to be 14 months and 3 years, respectively, both with significant cryogen and propellant lifetime margins to support an extended observing campaign. The ABE/ASPIRE mission concepts and their supporting Science Teams are led by Principal Investigator Dr. Scott Sandford of NASA s Ames Research Center, with industry partner Ball Aerospace Technologies Ltd., and managed by Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The ABE/ASPIRE Science Operations will be carried out at NASA s Ames Research Center, and the ABE/ASPIRE database will be archived at Caltech/IPAC.

Sandford, Scott↗
NASA NTRS2011

Active Neutron and Gamma-Ray Instrumentation for In Situ Planetary Science Applications

We describe the development of an instrument capable of detailed in situ bulk geochemical analysis of the surface of planets, moons, asteroids, and comets. This instrument technology uses a pulsed neutron generator to excite the solid materials of a planet and measures the resulting neutron and gamma-ray emission with its detector system. These time-resolved neutron and gamma-ray data provide detailed information about the bulk elemental composition, chemical context, and density distribution of the soil within 50 cm of the surface. While active neutron scattering and neutron-induced gamma-ray techniques have been used extensively for terrestrial nuclear well logging applications, our goal is to apply these techniques to surface instruments for use on any solid solar system body. As described, experiments at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center use a prototype neutron-induced gamma-ray instrument and the resulting data presented show the promise of this technique for becoming a versatile, robust, workhorse technology for planetary science, and exploration of any of the solid bodies in the solar system. The detection of neutrons at the surface also provides useful information about the material. This paper focuses on the data provided by the gamma-ray detector.

Parsons, A.↗
NASA NTRS2018

Signatures of the Impact Histories of Comets and Asteroids within Shocked Phyllosilicates, Enstatite, and Forsterite Minerals

Throughout the lifetime of the solar system, collisions between small bodies and impacts on the surfaces of small bodies in the Kuiper Belt have occured at speeds of 1.5 - 3 km s-1 (Stern, Astron J 124, 2002), typically at 1-10 km s-1 between Trojan asteroids (Marzari et al. Icarus 119, 1996), and at ~4-8 km s-1 in the asteroid belt (Farinella and Davis, Icarus 97, 1992). Shock effects recorded by minerals composing these bodies are one observable legacy of this evolutionary process, whether they were generated through large collisions, micrometeoroid impacts, or processing during the formation of the solar system. Shock metamorphism has been observed in cometary samples such as those from Comet Wild 2 (Keller et al. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 72, 2008; Tomeoka et al. MAPS 43, 2008; Jacobs et al. MAPS 44, 2009) as well as in forsterites and enstatites found in meteorites (McCausland et al. AGU, 2010). To investigate the observable signatures of these processes, we have conducted a suite of impact experiments at NASA Johnson Space Center's Experimental Impact Laboratory (EIL). Target materials included Mg-rich forsterite (olivine), Mg-rich enstatite (orthopyroxene), and antigorite and lizardite (both in the serpentine group of phyllosilicates). Alumina-ceramic spheres were launched at speeds ranging from ~2.0 - 2.6 km s-1 into targets at temperatures from 25degC to -100degC. Recent advancements have been made in cooling targets in the EIL's vertical gun. Liquid nitrogen (LN2) is fed through a unique jacket surrounding the metallic sample container to chill the samples. Real-time values from temperature sensors attached to the sample holder are converted to target temperature through predetermined regression relationships, providing the target temperature at the time of impact with sub-degree accuracy. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer (FTIR) data in the near to mid-IR will be presented, along with trends relating temperature and velocity with impact speeds, and thereby peak shock stresses experienced by the impacted minerals.

Lederer, Susan M.↗
NASA NTRS1984

Space exploration outlook

The exploration of the solar system has been one of NASA's most significant achievements. Currently Voyager 2 is on its way to Uranus and Neptune, and Galileo is being readied for detailed investigation of Jupiter and its Galilean satellites. A new phase of exploration will be inaugurated in the mid-80s with the start of the Planetary Observers and Mariner Mark II missions. A major thrust during this phase will be to cut mission costs by emphasizing spacecraft inheritance and multi-mission automated mission operations. More ambitious missions, e.g., Mars Sample Return, are under study but probably will not be candidates for new start funding till the mid-90s. Another exciting area is the potential utilization of resources on the moon and near earth asteroids.

Rea, D. G.↗
NASA NTRS2004

Ejecta Generation and Redistribution on 433 Eros: Modeling Ejecta Launch Conditions

The NEAR-Shoemaker mission to asteroid 433 Eros presents an unprecedented opportunity to gain fundamental new knowledge about the processes governing regolith formation and redistribution on small bodies. NEAR-Shoemaker’s high-resolution imaging of the surface of Eros makes the asteroid a valuable and heretofore unparalleled laboratory for the detailed study of impact ejecta reaccretion and regolith redistribution on low-gravity (of order 10 -3 g) objects. Regolith is produced on asteroids by impact cratering, and the existence of regolith on the smallest solar system bodies supports the view that some of the ejecta from impact events on such objects may be retained. Impact craters and retained ejecta on low-gravity objects like Eros represent valuable natural laboratories for evaluating various models of impact cratering processes, since they may present crater structures or ejecta features that either do not form or are hidden on higher-gravity bodies like the Moon. Further, quantifying the extent to which impact processes generate and redistribute regoliths on small body surfaces (excavation depths, retained fraction, turnover timescales, etc.) is pivotal to the issue of how to relate meteoritical samples to their asteroidal parent bodies when surficial processes ( i.e., “space weathering”) may disguise or cover up underlying material and confound the ability of remote sensing techniques to provide reliable mineralogical assays of the parent objects. The rich variety of data on Eros’ regolith properties and distribution returned by NEAR-Shoemaker now require detailed analysis in order to take full advantage of the clues these observations offer for elucidating details of the impact cratering process on small bodies. Complicating simple interpretations of crater and ejecta morphology are dynamical effects on ejecta emplacement resulting from Eros’ irregular shape, rapid (5.27 hr) rotation, and low gravity. Figure 1 shows the very different ejecta deposit morphology that can result if the effects of rotation alone are neglected. Considering the additional complicating factors of Eros’ irregular shape and complex gravitational field, simple calculations of the extent and thickness of ejecta blankets and the spatial distribution of ejecta blocks from basic crater scaling laws or numerical hydrocodes alone do not suffice. In order to fully interpret the suite of NEAR-Shoemaker observations of regolith features across the surface of Eros and to evaluate various impact models for specific craters on the asteroid, detailed dynamical modeling of the deposition of crater ejecta from those craters is required . Here, I describe some modifications and improvements to the dynamical model being used for these studies.

D D Durda↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

NASA Kennedy Space Center Swamp Works 10th Anniversary: Innovative Research & Technology Development Summary

Kennedy Space Center’s (KSC) Swamp Works, provides government and commercial space ventures with the technologies required for working and living on the surfaces of the Moon or other planets and bodies in our solar system. The Swamp Works team establishes rapid, innovative and cost-effective exploration mission solutions through leveraging of partnerships across NASA, industry and academia. Concepts start small and build up fast, with lean development processes and a hands-on approach. Testing is performed in early stages to drive design improvements and progressively increase Technology Readiness Levels (TRL). Swamp Works provides concepts, architecture studies and trades, designs, data, technology development, technology demonstration hardware, flight hardware, testing, flight support and knowledge in support of the development of surface systems. It consists of several teams with associated laboratories and test capabilities. The Granular Mechanics and Regolith Operations (GMRO) Laboratory and the Electrostatics and Surface Physics Laboratory (ESPL) are co-located in the Engineering Development Lab (EDL) facility high bay. The Applied Chemistry Lab (ACL) is in an adjacent facility and other KSC labs are being influenced by the innovation methods pioneered at the Swamp Works. The Swamp Works was founded in January 2013 by a group of scientists and engineers at KSC with the over-arching vision of expanding humanity and civilization into the solar system by the use of space resources via advanced technology. Ultimately, this will create a solar system economy that will improve the human condition due to the abundance of energy and resources. This paper will summarize the projects and technology development that have been performed by the Swamp Works to celebrate its 10th Anniversary of innovation success.

Robotic Mining↗
NASA NTRS2003

Radioastronomical Searches for Instellar Biomolecules

Impacts of comets and asteroids could have delivered large amounts of organic matter to the early Earth. to retain a significant interstellar signature; observations of recent bright comets indicate that they have a molecular inventory consistent with their ices being largely unmodified interstellar material. Many simple organic molecules with biochemical significance observed in circumstellar envelopes and in molecular clouds, similar to that from which the Solar System formed, may have acted as the precursors of the more complex organics found in meteorites. Therefore, there is potentially a strong link between interstellar organics and prebiotic chemical evolution. Radioastronomical observations, particularly at millimeter wavelengths, allow us to determine the chemical composition and characteristics of the molecular inventory in interstellar space. Here we report some of our recent results from extensive astronomical searches for astrobiologically-important interstellar organics.

Kuan, Y.-J.↗
NASA NTRS2016

Electrodynamic Dust Shield for Space Applications

The International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG) has chosen dust mitigation technology as a Global Exploration Roadmap (GER) critical technology need in order to reduce life cycle cost and risk, and increase the probability of mission success. NASA has also included Particulate Contamination Prevention and Mitigation as a cross-cutting technology to be developed for contamination prevention, cleaning and protection. This technology has been highlighted due to the detrimental effect of dust on both human and robotic missions. During manned Apollo missions, dust caused issues with both equipment and crew. Contamination of equipment caused many issues including incorrect instrument readings and increased temperatures due to masking of thermal radiators. The astronauts were directly affected by dust that covered space suits, obscured face shields and later propagated to the cabin and into the crew's eyes and lungs. Robotic missions on Mars were affected when solar panels were obscured by dust thereby reducing the effectiveness of the solar panels. The Electrostatics and Surface Physics Lab in Swamp Works at the Kennedy Space Center has been developing an Electrodynamic Dust Shield (EDS) to remove dust from multiple surfaces, including glass shields and thermal radiators. This technology has been tested in lab environments and has evolved over several years. Tests of the technology include reduced gravity flights (6g) in which Apollo Lunar dust samples were successfully removed from glass shields while under vacuum (1 millipascal). Further development of the technology is underway to reduce the size of the EDS as well as to perform material and component testing outside of the International Space Station (ISS) on the Materials on International Space Station Experiment X (MISSE-X). This experiment is designed to verify that the EDS can withstand the harsh environment of space and will look to closely replicate the solar environment experienced on the moon. A second flight opportunity exists to provide an EDS to several companies as part of NASA's Lunar CATALYST program. The current mission concept would fly the EDS on the footpad of one of the Lunar CATALYST vehicles. To determine the effectiveness of the EDS system, image analysis will be performed on the footpad before, during and after EDS activation. If successful in these test flights, the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) of the EDS will be raised to a sufficient level to be used in the protection of mission equipment for future NASA and commercial missions to the moon, asteroids, and Mars.

Dust mitigation↗