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DOE OSTI2025

Packages of Distributed Energy Technologies Demonstrating Demand Flexibility at Community Scale

The combination of increased electric load growth across all sectors, deferred electrical infrastructure investment, and other factors resulting in variable electric power supply, has created technical challenges to maintaining a resilient and reliable grid. Many federal, regional, and local efforts are in play to modernize the electric grid, including advancing building technologies and distributed energy resources (DERs) that are utilizing smarter controls to become responsive to both occupant and grid needs. This report reviews ten pilot projects demonstrating how groups of buildings combined with behind-the-meter (BTM) DERs such as electric vehicle (EV) charging, battery storage, flexible HVAC and domestic hot water systems, and photovoltaic systems can reliably and cost effectively provide grid services. Each of the ten pilot projects aim to deliver both energy efficiency and demand flexibility (DF) while supporting load growth. The ten demonstration teams are piloting flexible DER packages across diverse communities of residential and commercial buildings to address a variety of regional grid needs. The outcomes of these pilot projects will be used to inform future scaling through utility program development. This paper characterizes the ten teams, showcasing the decision-making process used by each group to develop their packages (Section 2), the grid services they plan to deliver (Section 3), the types of DER packages selected for deployment within building sectors (Section 4) and trends between building sector, DER types, and grid services In order to achieve community scale benefits, the pilot projects must utilize aggregated control mechanisms for coordinating buildings and DERs together. Several types of coordinated control architectures have evolved amongst the teams, influenced by use type, existing market conditions, and integration type. Three coordinated controls architectures have been characterized, highlighting their use cases, benefits, challenges, and tradeoffs in their design. These insights can aid utilities, control vendors, and developers in scaling community-level energy systems (Paul, 2024). Ultimately, the technology packages selected by the ten teams will be coordinated to provide power system services, also known as grid services. Insights from these demonstrations will be useful for grid operators, regulators, aggregators and other stakeholders as they look to deploy demand flexible resources as grid services in the future. The grid services that each team is targeting for demonstration are described in Section 3 and Section 4. Methods for evaluating the grid services have been described in the paper Metrics for Evaluating Grid Service Provision from Communities of Grid-interactive and Efficient Buildings and other DER (MacDonald, 2023). To identify technology packages for demonstration, Section 2 shows that project teams used a range of analysis approaches, including building energy modeling, AMI data analysis, cost-benefit frameworks, and utility pilot data. Some teams emphasized technical modeling to quantify grid impacts and demand reduction potential, while others prioritized economic evaluations, stakeholder input, or exploratory pilots to inform deployment decisions. This diversity reflects the need to tailor selection methods to project goals, available data, and organizational context. Section 5 discusses trends between the DER technologies deployed and the grid service provisions from each team. Residential buildings (multifamily and single family) lean towards technologies that enhance energy efficiency (e.g. weatherization upgrades, smart thermostats) and onsite power generation integration (e.g. solar PV). Commercial building demonstrations prioritize technologies that ensure operational reliability (e.g. battery storage) and centralized energy management systems and optimization solutions. Teams that are deploying controllable storage-based technologies are more likely to provide grid services that require a near real-time response. Teams incorporating load shifting technologies like smart thermostats with HEMs are likely to include energy markets participation and customer bill management offerings. Campus demonstrations are adopting diverse sets of DERs to emphasize renewable generation, paired with centralized control. This section also describes technologies that were considered during project planning but ultimately excluded from final deployment. These demonstrations reveal that effective DER package design should be tailored to building type, customer segment, and construction vintage. Multifamily buildings benefit from centralized HVAC upgrades and supervisory controls, while single-family homes are well-suited for individualized technologies like solar, storage, and smart home energy monitors. Commercial and campus settings prioritize EMIS integration and load optimization. New construction enables cost-effective integration of DER-ready infrastructure, whereas retrofits require deployments aligned with owner and tenant value streams. For utility program planners, early coordination with developers and building owners, paired with segmented and modular program offerings, can improve adoption, scalability, and grid impact.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2022

A techno-economic assessment framework for hydrogen energy storage toward multiple energy delivery pathways and grid services

Hydrogen energy storage (HES) transforms and stores electric energy from the grid into hydrogen, and supplements other energy storage and demand response resources in addressing challenges in renewable-intensive power systems. Understanding how to optimally utilize an HES system to maximize its economic benefits from stacked value streams is highly important to its development and deployment. Here, in this paper, we present a techno-economic assessment framework for an HES system considering three common energy delivery pathways and multiple grid and end-user services. Models are developed to capture the operational capability, flexibility, and constraints associated with hydrogen production, compression, storage, and utilization as well as different grid services in an economic assessment. To define the technically achievable benefits, an optimal dispatch formulation is proposed to maximize the economic benefits over a representative year with an hourly time step considering the trade-offs among different value streams. Representative case studies are designed and carried out to show how system configuration, energy delivery pathways, and grid services may affect economic benefits. It was found that value streams from bundling grid services account for up to 76% of the total benefits and are critical for an HES project to be financially viable.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Special Section on Local and Distributed Electricity Markets

Driven by the goals of clean energy and zero carbon emissions, the power industry is undergoing significant transformations. The rapid growth of diverse distributed energy resources (DERs) at grid edge such as rooftop photovoltaics (PVs) and electric vehicles is transforming the traditional centralized power grid management to a decentralized, bottom-up, and localized control paradigm. Establishing local and distribution-level electricity markets provides an effective solution to managing large amounts of small-scale DERs. New regulations such as the recent FERC Order 2222 in the U.S. open the door to DERs in the wholesale markets. Through coordinating the local and distribution-level markets with the transmission-level wholesale market, the DERs and prosumers can trade energy and flexibility locally with each other and meanwhile provide energy, flexibility and ancillary services to the bulk power grid. During this transition, there are many new technical challenges to address, calling for innovative ideas and interdisciplinary research in this promising direction. Advanced information and communication technologies (ICT) are needed, as a key enabler, for the development and practical implementation of local and distribution electricity markets. Research into local and distribution markets is strongly interdisciplinary, involving the state of the art in power engineering, economics, and digital/information technology. A broad spectrum of contributors from universities, industry, research laboratories and policy makers is sought to develop and present solutions and technologies that will facilitate and advance practical applications and implementations of local and distribution-level electricity markets to uncover the values of DERs.

distributed energy resources↗
DOE OSTI2022

A Development of Critical Components for the Modular Staged Pressurized Oxy-Combustion Power Plant

DOE's Coal FIRST (Flexible, Innovative, Resilient, Small, Transformative) Initiative was implemented to encourage the development of the coal plant of the future, which will be capable of flexible operation to meet the needs of the grid; using innovative and cutting-edge components that improve efficiency and reduce emissions; providing resilient power to Americans; being small compared to today's conventional utility-scale coal power plants; and transforming how coal power plant technologies are designed and manufactured. The modular Staged, Pressurized Oxy-Combustion (SPOC) process envisioned by and under development at Washington University in St. Louis (WUSTL) has the potential to achieve these goals. The process offers: 1) a modular plant design for improved operational flexibility; 2) fuel-staging combined with pressurized oxy-combustion, which leads to smaller plant size, higher plant efficiency, and lower cost for pollutant and greenhouse gases removal compared with traditional carbon-capture equipped coal power plants; and 3) small modular boilers and pollutant removal units that can be fabricated in shop and assembled on site, further reducing plant capital costs. Under DOE's support (DE-FE0031925), WUSTL is advancing the development of the critical components for the SPOC power plant, including the integrated combustion system and the direct contact cooler (DCC) from TRL 4 to TRL-5, which would allow them to be subsequently incorporated into a pilot plant. These units are the only two components that are not commercially available for a SPOC plant, and hence, their development is a key step toward the commercialization of SPOC. This work presents the objectives, task descriptions, and current progress of the project. So far, the fabrication of a new combustor design and the convective heat transfer boiler has been completed, and the integration of the combustor, boiler, and DCC is underway. Recent results obtained with the newly designed combustor show a stable coal/methane flame while dry-feeding PRB coal under oxy-combustion conditions.

Magalhaes, Duarte↗
DOE OSTI2022

Low-Cost Sulfur Thermal Storage for Increased Flexibility and Improved Economics of Fossil-Fueled Electricity Generating Units (Final Report)

The US electric grid relies on conventional fossil fuel power plants for reliable and secure power, but these plants suffer from physical and financial strain due to the influx of inexpensive and variable solar and wind electricity. Conventional power plants need to generate electricity flexibly and on-demand to accommodate these renewable resources on the grid. Integrating a low-cost thermal energy storage (TES) gives fossil assets the ability to regulate their output efficiently and optimize the plant operation to maximize revenue in the wholesale electricity market. Element 16’s TES concept uses sulfur, a byproduct of the oil & gas industry, as the storage media that is 10 times cheaper than molten salt used in commercial two-tank TES technology. In this project, the team completed a detailed feasibility and technoeconomic study establishing the impact, cost and performance of molten sulfur TES system integrated with fossil assets.

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Packetized Energy Management: Coordinating Transmission and Distribution (Final Report)

The project Packetized Energy Management (PEM): Coordinating Transmission and Distribution was part of the ARPA-E NODES program from 2015 to 2023. The high-level goal of the project was to develop and demonstrate novel, scalable, and impactful technologies related to the coordination of networked distributed energy resources (DERs). By demonstrating responsive means by which fleets of DERs could be coordinated to enhance grid operation and reliability, the U.S. could accelerate renewable integration and electrification efforts and meet decarbonization goals.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2026

V2XConnect: Harmonizing the Landscape of Bidirectional Charging Codes, Standards, and Communication Protocols

The utility grid is constantly evolving with new generation sources and diverse loads from backup generators, backup batteries, rooftop photovoltaics (PV), and flexible charging loads. Each of these technologies presents consumers with an opportunity to work with their local utility to promote grid stability, reliability, and affordability. Through a wide range of programs, utilities are incentivizing the use of these resources to benefit the grid. However, especially for devices with inverters that supply power back to the grid, it is important that these assets comply with local grid codes to ensure human safety, power quality, and grid reliability. One of the most promising of these new technologies is the bidirectional electric vehicle (EV) coupled with bidirectional electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE). This report introduces the technologies that enable bidirectional charging and how these systems operate. It then outlines the necessary interconnection codes and industry standards that govern the operations of grid-tied inverters, including those in bidirectional charging. A key challenge is then outlined from the complex landscape of communication protocols and proprietary systems designed to coordinate these grid assets. Finally, a single gateway solution is proposed to harmonize communications between all assets across an entire site for a cohesive response to grid codes and utility programs that is flexible enough to support a range of market options.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Utilizing commercial heating, ventilating, and air conditioning systems to provide grid services: A review

The modern power grid faces multiple challenges due to an increase in the adoption of renewable generation, such as dynamically balancing supply and demand at different time scales. Demand side management in buildings plays a vital role in achieving this balance because buildings can provide grid services through a variety of building assets. However, the development of grid-interactive, efficient buildings is still in its infancy, and a systematic and holistic understanding of grid service delivery strategies in terms of energy efficiency, load shifting, load shedding and load modulating is still limited. This paper is a comprehensive review of the development and application of building-level control strategies for utilizing heating, ventilating, and air conditioning systems to provide grid services. These strategies have been investigated through numerical and experimental studies. Control algorithms, such as heuristic rule-based control and model-based control, have been used to enable the automatic control delivery of grid services. The advantages and disadvantages of the strategies are summarized and discussed. Finally, research trends are also identified, which include considering predicted mean vote-based and occupant-based thermal comfort, modeling of occupant behavior, integrating power grid operations with building control, and combining different demand flexibility modes in the control design.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2020

Quantification of Load Flexibility in Residential Buildings Using Home Energy Management Systems

With increasing penetration of renewable energy resources, the flexibility of operating behind-the-meter (BTM) resources plays a key role in enhancing grid reliability and resilience. Residential buildings with home energy management systems (HEMS) can provide desired flexibility for the distribution system operator (DSO) while considering customer comfort and preferences. This paper discusses a methodology to quantify the flexibility of BTM resources of residential buildings using HEMS. First, we propose a model predictive control framework to formulate the flexibility band comprising nominal, upper, and lower demand profiles. Second, the paper proposes a dispatch method for HEMS to compute the control signals for each BTM resource (e.g., air conditioner, water heater, home battery system) upon receiving a flexibility service request from the DSO. The case study provides insight into the flexibility provided at the whole-home level with different user preferences and seasons. The results demonstrate that HEMS is capable of providing flexibility service at the request of the DSO while delivering primary services to the building occupants.

41 EE - Solar Energy Technologies Office (EE-4S)↗
DOE OSTI2021

Microgrid's Role in Enhancing the Security and Flexibility of City Energy Systems

Smart cities depend on flexible and secure energy systems to ensure resilient power for critical infrastructure; however, recent weather-related events and cyberattacks have highlighted weaknesses in our energy systems, with the potential for widespread economic and security impacts. As stated by the Executive Office of the President, "the resilience of the US electric grid is a key part of the nation's defense against severe weather." To address the energy delivery security challenge, microgrids are rising as a viable solution that enhances the flexibility and resilience of the distribution grid and boosts the reliability of the local supply for the end-user. Traditionally, high capital investment has been a barrier to large-scale adoption of microgrid technology. Understanding the flexibility and resilience benefits of microgrids and accounting for the associated value streams can make the microgrid's proposition economically viable. In this chapter, microgrids' utility and their potential to serve as a flexible and resilient resource for the utility grid by providing capabilities such as peak shaving, demand response, and frequency regulation is presented. Moreover, other value streams, such as (1) their ability to island during a disaster and sustain critical loads which makes them a robust resilience solution for end-users, in the event of the utility grid outage and (2) microgrids also provide a flexible platform for integrating distributed energy resources in conjunction with storage and conventional generation technologies, strengthen microgrid's role in reducing the over-arching goal of emission reduction. Given the myriad of benefits associated with microgrids, we present strategies which can be employed for making microgrid itself resilient against physical and cyberthreats by employing hardware, software, and personnel training solutions to operate the microgrid before, during, and after a potential disaster. This chapter, thus, provides a holistic study of the microgrid as a resilience resource, for the utility grid, and a self-contained end-user for the end-user.

cyber-physical system↗
DOE OSTI2022

Hierarchical Model-Free Transactional Control of Building Loads to Support Grid Services

A transition from generation on demand to consumption on demand is one of the solutions to overcome the many limitations associated with the higher penetration of renewable energy sources. Such a transition, however, requires a considerable amount of load flexibility in the demand side. Demand response (DR) programs can reveal and utilize this demand flexibility by enabling the participation of a large number of grid-interactive efficient buildings (GEB). Existing approaches on DR require significant modelling or training efforts, are computationally expensive, and do not guarantee the satisfaction of end users. To address the aforementioned limitations, this software code considers a scalable hierarchical model-free transactional control approach that incorporates elements of virtual battery, game theory, and model-free control (MFC) mechanisms. The developed approach separates the control mechanism into upper and lower levels. The MFC modulates the flexible GEB in the lower level with guaranteed thermal comfort of end users in response to the optimal pricing and power signals determined in the upper layer using a Stackelberg game integrated with aggregate virtual battery constraints. Additionally, the usage of MFC necessitates less burdensome computational and communication requirements, thus, it is easily deployable even on small, embedded devices. This software code enables the use of residential and small-size commercial buildings to offer a potentially substantial source of ancillary grid services that are currently underutilized. A hierarchical, model-free transactive building control provides a smooth interface between the grid service requests of utilities and the reliable control required by participating buildings. Model-free control, which supports distributed control architecture, will be a more scalable solution that can be deployed in neighborhood-size systems as well as individual buildings. The proposed approach contributes to the body of knowledge on two main aspects. First, it couples the MFC with the game-theoretic control and proposes a scalable model-free transactive control approach. MFC does not require any modeling effort or model training for the various building loads. This is very beneficial since deriving an accurate model for every single unit participating in DR programs and obtaining all the parameters about the units (e.g., thermal coefficients, standby losses) are infeasible. Also, MFC is computationally efficient, easily deployable even on small, embedded devices, and can be implemented in real time. Second, it integrates the concept of virtual battery into DR via the Stackelberg game. The concept of virtual battery enables efficient coordination and aggregation of a large number of flexible GEB with guaranteed thermal comfort of end users.

Olama, Mohammed [Oak Ridge National Lab. (ORNL), O↗
DOE OSTI2026

Economic NMPC for a Reversible Solid Oxide Cell

Reversible solid oxide fuel cells (rSOCs) offer the flexibility to operate in tandem with the electric grid by switching between fuel cell and electrolysis modes based on real-time electricity prices. However, their complex, tightly coupled dynamic behavior poses significant challenges in determining optimal operating strategies. In this work, we present an economic nonlinear model predictive control (E-NMPC) framework to optimize the operation of rSOCs. The proposed E-NMPC is applied to a detailed rSOC flowsheet model that includes a utility scale rSOC module as well as balance-of-plant equipment necessary for thermal management. Our results demonstrate that in fuel cell mode, the E-NMPC strategy reduces hydrogen consumption compared to conventional set-point tracking NMPC, while maintaining the same level of electricity output. Also, in electrolysis mode, the E-NMPC yields a marginal improvement in hydrogen production. In addition, we explore the integration of a battery with the rSOC system to enhance flexibility in meeting electricity production and consumption targets.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2021

GT Flex: A Coordinated Multi-Building Pilot Study

Buildings are a significant and untapped resource for providing utility electric grid services. Recent studies have estimated that buildings could reduce the peak demand on the electric grid in the U.S. by almost 25% through effective combinations of energy efficiency (EE) measures and load flexibility strategies (Langevin et al. 2021). The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has established a goal to triple energy efficiency and demand flexibility in both residential and commercial sections by 2030 compared to 2020 levels (Satchwell et al. 2021). Such findings place buildings alongside electric vehicles, photovoltaics, electric batteries, and other distributed energy resources (DERs) as primary technologies needed for supporting high renewable energy generation grids. Coordinating and optimizing multiple buildings and other DERs is more beneficial and valuable when compared with individual buildings and DERs operating as siloed resources, uncoordinated with others (Olgyay et al. 2020). A pilot study at the Georgia Institute of Technology (GIT) was conducted to evaluate value propositions of a multi-building scale project seeking carbon reduction, energy efficiency and grid-interactive capabilities, by demonstrating the means by which stakeholders can determine the technical and financial merits of grid-interactivity and energy efficiency technologies coordinated across multiple assets. The study focused on analyzing technical feasibility of deploying thermal load flexibility strategies at the multi-building scale, coordinated to not exceed existing infrastructure constraints at the pilot site. Results show that campus can provide 3-3.5 MW of potential load shed over a 4-hour event window through coordinated dispatch of thermal cooling load flexibility without exceeding existing infrastructure capacities. Under future high renewable scenarios, this thermal flexibility resource is also valuable when coordinated to reduce curtailment of intermittent renewables. Economic analyses were performed to effectively communicate various value propositions of grid-interactive and efficient building (GEB) thermal flexibility strategies. Load flexibility presents a financial value proposition to the campus today. By conducting rationalized, coordinated dispatch in response to real time price (RTP) fluctuations, the campus can benefit materially from daily price arbitrage. The RTP signal acts as an aggregating mechanism between the utility and customer to call on demand flexibility resources, with a large portion of the benefit deriving from a relatively small number of days. Realizing and maximizing this benefit with thermal load flexibility requires careful attention to the timing of pricing signals and parameterization of dispatch to overcome efficiency penalties. Grid value and signals are expected to evolve over time, and thermal load flexibility shows potential to adapt dispatch logic to support intermittent renewable generation.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2021

GMLC 1.5.03: Increasing Distribution System Resiliency using Flexible DER and Microgrid Assets Enabled by OpenFMB (Duke-RDS Final Report)

This is the final project report for the Grid Modernization Laboratory Consortium (GMLC) Resilient Distribution System (RDS) project titled “Increasing Distribution System Resiliency using Flexible DER and Microgrid Assets Enabled by OpenFMB”. The primary goal of this project was to increase the resiliency of distribution systems at utilities around the nation by deploying flexible operating strategies that engage end-use assets as a resource.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2023

Modular Staged Pressurized Oxy-Combustion (SPOC) Power Plant for Coal and Biomass – Integration of Combustor Boiler and DCC

Critical to the future of power generation is the development of a power plant that will be capable of flexible operation to meet the needs of the modern grid, providing resilient, low-emissions power to a grid that is increasingly seeing a large penetration of intermittent wind and solar. The modular Staged, Pressurized Oxy-Combustion (SPOC) process envisioned by and under development at Washington University in St. Louis (WUSTL) has the potential to achieve these goals. The process offers: 1) a modular plant design for improved operational flexibility; 2) fuel-staging combined with pressurized oxy-combustion, which leads to smaller plant size, higher plant efficiency, and lower cost for pollutant and greenhouse gas removal compared with traditional carbon-capture equipped coal power plants; and 3) small modular boilers and pollutant removal units that can be fabricated in shop and assembled on site, further reducing plant capital costs. Under DOE's support (DE-FE0031925), WUSTL is advancing the development of the critical components for the SPOC power plant, including the integrated combustion system and the direct contact cooler (DCC) from Technology Readiness Level (TRL) 4 to TRL-5, which would allow these technologies to be subsequently incorporated into a pilot plant. This talk will present an overview of the SPOC technology, CFD modeling and validation for burner and boiler development, and recent results to evaluate critical components for system integration needed to advance its TRL.

Magalhaes, Duarte↗
DOE OSTI2023

Development of the Modular Staged Pressurized Oxy-Combustion (SPOC) Power Plant for Coal and Biomass

Critical to the future of power generation is the development of a power plant that will be capable of flexible operation to meet the needs of the modern grid, providing resilient, low-emissions power to a grid that is increasingly seeing a large penetration of intermittent wind and solar. The modular Staged, Pressurized Oxy-Combustion (SPOC) process envisioned by and under development at Washington University in St. Louis (WUSTL) has the potential to achieve these goals. The process offers: 1) a modular plant design for improved operational flexibility; 2) fuel-staging combined with pressurized oxy-combustion, which leads to smaller plant size, higher plant efficiency, and lower cost for pollutant and greenhouse gases removal compared with traditional carbon-capture equipped coal power plants; and 3) small modular boilers and pollutant removal units that can be fabricated in shop and assembled on site, further reducing plant capital costs. Under DOE's support (DE-FE0031925), WUSTL is advancing the development of the critical components for the SPOC power plant, including the integrated combustion system and the direct contact cooler (DCC) from Technology Readiness Level (TRL) 4 to TRL-5, which would allow these technologies to be subsequently incorporated into a pilot plant. This talk will present an overview of the SPOC technology, CFD modeling and validation for burner and boiler development, and recent results to evaluate critical components needed to advance its TRL.

Magalhaes, Duarte↗
DOE OSTI2022

Machine Learning-based Cyber-Physical Anomaly Detection in Wide Area Voltage Control Systems

Wide-area voltage control systems (WAVCS) are widely deployed in power grid to improve the voltage stability in transmission system using Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) devices. The WAVCS relies on wide-area measurement and control signals for closed-loop control of FACTS devices to improve the transient voltage stability in power grid in real-time. Since the WAVCS utilizes a cyber-layer communication during its normal operation, they are susceptible to cyber attacks from adversaries which can lead to a voltage collapse if the attacks go undetected and unmitigated. This paper proposes a supervised machine learning (ML)-based anomaly detection algorithm for detecting various stealthy cyber attacks in the context of WAVCS cybersecurity. In particular, a fuzzy logic-based wide-area controller, as proposed by the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA), is implemented on the Kundur’s four machine two-area system that is integrated with a static var compensator (SVC) to improve voltage profile on sensitive buses. Later, different types of data integrity attacks, including pulse and ramp attacks, are considered on the wide-area measurement and control signals to analyze the performance of the proposed anomaly detector. Our experimental evaluation shows a promising performance with a high true-positive rate (more than 99%) and low false-negative rate (less than 1%) while exhibiting a small prediction time.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗