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NASA NTRS1990

Human factors of the high technology cockpit

The rapid advance of cockpit automation in the last decade has outstripped the ability of the human factors profession to understand the changes in human functions required. High technology cockpits require less physical (observable) workload, but are highly demanding of cognitive functions such as planning, alternative selection, and monitoring. Furthermore, automation creates opportunity for new and more serious forms of human error, and many pilots are concerned about the possibility of complacency affecting their performance. On the positive side, the equipment works as advertized with high reliability, offering highly efficient, computer-based flight. These findings from the cockpit studies probably apply equally to other industries, such as nuclear power production, other modes of transportation, medicine, and manufacturing, all of which traditionally have looked to aviation for technological leadership. The challenge to the human factors profession is to aid designers, operators, and training departments in exploiting the positive side of automation, while seeking solutions to the negative side. Viewgraphs are given.

Wiener, Earl L.↗

NASA NTRS2004

The Airframe Noise Reduction Challenge

The NASA goal of reducing external aircraft noise by 10 dB in the near-term presents the acoustics community with an enormous challenge. This report identifies technologies with the greatest potential to reduce airframe noise. Acoustic and aerodynamic effects will be discussed, along with the likelihood of industry accepting and implementing the different technologies. We investigate the lower bound, defined as noise generated by an aircraft modified with a virtual retrofit capable of eliminating all noise associated with the high lift system and landing gear. However, the airframe noise of an aircraft in this 'clean' configuration would only be about 8 dB quieter on approach than current civil transports. To achieve the NASA goal of 10 dB noise reduction will require that additional noise sources be addressed. Research shows that energy in the turbulent boundary layer of a wing is scattered as it crosses trailing edge. Noise generated by scattering is the dominant noise mechanism on an aircraft flying in the clean configuration. Eliminating scattering would require changes to much of the aircraft, and practical reduction devices have yet to receive serious attention. Evidence suggests that to meet NASA goals in civil aviation noise reduction, we need to employ emerging technologies and improve landing procedures; modified landing patterns and zoning restrictions could help alleviate aircraft noise in communities close to airports.

Lockard, David P.↗

NASA NTRS2012

Mission to Mars: Connecting Diverse Student Groups with NASA Experts

The Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago has formulated an innovative approach to inspiring the next generation to pursue STEM education. Middle school students in Chicago and at nearby Challenger Learning Centers work in teams to design a mission to Mars. Each mission includes real time access to NASA experts through partnerships with Marshall Space Flight Center, Johnson Space Center, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Interactive videoconferencing connects students at the museum with students at a Challenger Learning Center and with NASA experts. This paper describes the approach, the results from the program s first year, and future opportunities for nationwide expansion.

Polsgrove, Tara↗

NASA NTRS2012

Mars Ascent Vehicle Development Status

The Mars robotic sample return mission has been a potential flagship mission for NASA s science mission directorate for decades. The Mars Exploration Program and the planetary science decadal survey have highlighted both the science value of the Mars Sample Return (MSR) mission, but also the need for risk reduction through technology development. One of the critical elements of the MSR mission is the Mars Ascent Vehicle (MAV), which must launch the sample cache from the surface of Mars and place it into low Mars orbit. The MAV has significant challenges to overcome due to tight constraints on the MAV s mass and volume, as well as environmental challenges associated with long duration storage on the Martian surface and during Entry Descent and Landing (EDL). In the fall of 2010, NASA selected three industrial partners for study phase contracts to develop MAV system concepts, identify technology needs, and recommend technology developments plans for follow-on work. In addition to the contractor recommendations, JPL s Team-X was used for a comparative assessment of the three vehicle concepts to understand relative strengths, weaknesses, and sensitivity to system growth. The GRC COMPASS team independently evaluated MAV system solutions using liquid bipropellant, solid rocket motors, and an advanced monopropellant option. The results of the study phase contracts and comparative assessment is provided herein.

Dankanich, John W.↗

NASA NTRS2018

Mega-Drivers to Inform NASA Space Technology Strategic Planning

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Space Technology Mission Directorate (STMD) has been developing a new Strategic Framework to guide investment prioritization and communication of STMD strategic goals to stakeholders. STMD’s analysis of global trends identified four overarching drivers which are anticipated to shape the needs of civilian space research for years to come. These Mega-Drivers form the foundation of the Strategic Framework. The Increasing Access Mega-Driver reflects the increase in the availability of launch options, more capable propulsion systems, access to planetary surfaces, and the introduction of new platforms to enable exploration, science, and commercial activities. Accelerating Pace of Discovery reflects the exploration of more remote and challenging destinations, drives increased demand for improved abilities to communicate and process large datasets. The Democratization of Space reflects the broadening participation in the space industry, from governments to private investors to citizens. Growing Utilization of Space reflects space market diversification and growth. This paper will further describe the observable trends that inform each of these Mega Drivers, as well as the interrelationships between them within STMD’s new Strategic Framework.

Grande, Melanie L.↗

NASA NTRS2018

Mega-Drivers to Inform NASA Space Technology Strategic Planning

Melanie L Grande↗

NASA NTRS2022

Advanced Technology Infusion into a Spacesuit System

Advancement in technology drives our future. Moreover, the successful implementation of a technology drives its possibilities. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has invested in numerous technologies over the decades. A quote from NASA’s Space Technology Mission Directorates indicates the importance of technology: “Historically, technology has driven humanity’s progress and will continue to define our future. Our nation chooses to invest in new technology not only to maintain our edge in the global economy but also because technology helps us: Redefine the possible; Create a technologically advanced future; and Drive economic growth.” It is difficult for a technology to satisfy these goals unless it can be successfully infused into a system. For a technology to continue to evolve, become a reality, and infuse into NASA’s missions, there must exist a compilation of success-oriented factors for the technology to reach fruition. Understanding these factors could help decrease the complexity of technology infusion and bridge the gap between technology developers and system integrators. Ultimately, the knowledge gained could facilitate the design, development, and infusion of a technology to be more effective and efficient. Successful technology infusion is complex. Even complexity at the interfaces can be daunting when advanced technology’s infuse into complex systems such as a spacesuit. Additionally, unforeseen emergent behavior and challenges can surface upon integration. Overall, there is a need to understand and measure the success of infusing an advanced technology into a complex system. Industry and academia desire to quantify performance benefits of technologies integrated into complex systems. This paper will focus advanced technology infusion into a spacesuit system. This research could help NASA and industry’s project managers and system mangers integrate advanced technologies more effectively and efficiently.

Advanced Technology↗

NASA NTRS2016

Future Trends in Logistics and Sustainment

Airship Industry Study: In 2015, NASA Ames Research Center completed a study of the overall airship industry. The project called for a report that describes airship concepts proposed or projects initiated in recent years, airship performance or capability targets, and the missions these activities were addressing. The resulting report details the principal technical features of these airships, the proposed value/advantages of the features, notional concepts of operation, and challenges associated with such vehicles. The study investigated the current status and near-term prospects of these airship development activities, whether they are active or, if curtailed, the circumstances and possible reasons for that conclusion, including technical, business, or other mitigating factors. This presentation provides highlights of the Airship Industry Study investigations, findings, and recommendations. UAS Carrier Concept: The advantages of utilizing an airship as an airborne carrier for support and deployment of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) are examined. Whether as a stand-alone platform or in concert with conventional aircraft, the airship UAS carrier provides a number of compelling benefits for both military and civilian missions. As a mobile base it can remain operational despite political fallout that may render ground or ocean based UAS sites unavailable. It offers the psychological impact of a power projection tool that has few geographical limits, and holds promise as a new method for cost-saving intelligence gathering. It is also adaptable for civilian variants for supporting: emergency response, security/surveillance, delivery of medical/food supplies, as well as commercial package delivery to metropolitan and remote communities.

Hochstetler, Ron↗

NASA NTRS2015

Characterization of Machine Variability and Progressive Heat Treatment in Selective Laser Melting of Inconel 718

The absence of an economy of scale in spaceflight hardware makes additive manufacturing an immensely attractive option for propulsion components. As additive manufacturing techniques are increasingly adopted by government and industry to produce propulsion hardware in human‐rated systems, significant development efforts are needed to establish these methods as reliable alternatives to conventional subtractive manufacturing. One of the critical challenges facing powder bed fusion techniques in this application is variability between machines used to perform builds. Even with implementation of robust process controls, it is possible for two machines operating at identical parameters with equivalent base materials to produce specimens with slightly different material properties. The machine variability study presented here evaluates 60 specimens of identical geometry built using the same parameters. 30 samples were produced on machine 1 (M1) and the other 30 samples were built on machine 2 (M2). Each of the 30‐sample sets were further subdivided into three subsets (with 10 specimens in each subset) to assess the effect of progressive heat treatment on machine variability. The three categories for post‐processing were: stress relief, stress relief followed by hot isostatic press (HIP), and stress relief followed by HIP followed by heat treatment per AMS 5664. Each specimen (a round, smooth tensile) was mechanically tested per ASTM E8. Two formal statistical techniques, hypothesis testing for equivalency of means and one‐way analysis of variance (ANOVA), were applied to characterize the impact of machine variability and heat treatment on six material properties: tensile stress, yield stress, modulus of elasticity, fracture elongation, and reduction of area. This work represents the type of development effort that is critical as NASA, academia, and the industrial base work collaboratively to establish a path to certification for additively manufactured parts. For future flight programs, NASA and its commercial partners will procure parts from vendors who will use a diverse range of machines to produce parts and, as such, it is essential that the AM community develop a sound understanding of the degree to which machine variability impacts material properties.

Prater, Tracie↗

NASA NTRS1998

Challenges to Laser-Based Imaging Techniques in Gas Turbine Combustor Systems for Aerospace Applications

Increasingly severe constraints on emissions, noise and fuel efficiency must be met by the next generation of commercial aircraft powerplants. At NASA Lewis Research Center (LeRC) a cooperative research effort with industry is underway to design and test combustors that will meet these requirements. To accomplish these tasks, it is necessary to gain both a detailed understanding of the combustion processes and a precise knowledge of combustor and combustor sub-component performance at close to actual conditions. To that end, researchers at LeRC are engaged in a comprehensive diagnostic investigation of high pressure reacting flowfields that duplicate conditions expected within the actual engine combustors. Unique, optically accessible flame-tubes and sector rig combustors, designed especially for these tests. afford the opportunity to probe these flowfields with the most advanced, laser-based optical diagnostic techniques. However, these same techniques, tested and proven on comparatively simple bench-top gaseous flame burners, encounter numerous restrictions and challenges when applied in these facilities. These include high pressures and temperatures, large flow rates, liquid fuels, remote testing, and carbon or other material deposits on combustor windows. Results are shown that document the success and versatility of these nonintrusive optical diagnostics despite the challenges to their implementation in realistic systems.

Locke, Randy J.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

NASA Aeronautics Sustainable Aviation Overview

We live in challenging but exciting times for aviation as the sector continues to emerge from the unprecedented impact of a global pandemic while addressing its contribution to global warming. This perfect storm provides opportunity and the drivers that can lead to the most substantial changes the aviation sector has seen since the convergence of jet engines and swept wings over 60 years ago. The reality is we are entering the dawn of a new era of sustainable aviation full of opportunities and challenges that must economically address the health and transportation needs of society with unprecedentedly low impact on local, regional, and global environments. Today, commercial aviation physically connects countries across the globe and is an integral, critical part of today’s expanding global economy. Commercial aviation relies almost entirely on subsonic transport aircraft to constantly move people and goods from one place to another across the globe. While an effective means of transportation providing an unmatched combination of payload, speed, and range, future subsonic aircraft must continue to improve to meet efficiency, environmental, and economic goals established around the world to sustain the substantial growth projected in this well-established market. Commercial supersonic transports have come and gone in the global market, but they are on the verge of reemerging. Vertical lift vehicles leveraging breakthroughs in autonomous systems and electrified propulsion are positioned for massive growth in local and regional markets leading to daily flights within metropolitan areas that may exceed that across countries. To succeed, these new aircraft must be sustainable from day 1. NASA Aeronautics has a long history of contributions to aviation, and today it continues to address the challenge of sustainable growth of the traditional air transportation system through the research and development of systems and technologies for future aircraft and airspace operations. Research programs over the last decade have set the stage to demonstrate key technologies offering step-change performance and environmental impact. Through a Sustainable Flight National Partnership, NASA will partner with industry, academia, and other government agencies to demonstrate the most promising technologies during the 2020s to enable revolutionary systems in the early 2030s. In parallel, NASA will explore systems and technologies for further benefits approaching zero environmental impact beyond the 2030s. Similarly, NASA programs are addressing the challenges of emerging markets enabled by vertical take-off/landing and low-boom supersonic cruise. This oral-only presentation will focus on opportunities and challenges in the traditional subsonic transport while touching on emerging vertical lift and supersonic commercial aviation markets. NASA’s recent contributions, ongoing research, and plans for sustainable aviation will be discussed, including airframe, propulsion, and integrated vehicle systems and technologies.

James A. Kenyon↗

NASA NTRS2016

Lunar COTS: Using the Moon's Resources to Enable An Economical and Sustainable Pathway to Mars and Beyond

To support NASAs goal of sending humans to Mars, a new plan was constructed to develop and demonstrate cislunar capabilities and services in partnership with commercial industry using the well-proven Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) Program acquisition model. The NASA COTS Program was a very successful program that developed and demonstrated cost-effective commercial cargo transportation services to the International Space Station (ISS). As a result of NASAs COTS program, two new launch vehicles and spacecraft were developed and have been successfully performing cargo transportation missions to the ISS since 2012. The COTS acquisition strategy utilized a new model than normally accepted in traditional procurement practices. This new model used Space Act Agreements where NASA entered into partnerships with industry to jointly share cost, development and operational risks to demonstrate new capabilities for mutual benefit. This model proved to be very beneficial to both NASA and its industry partners as NASA saved significantly in development and operational costs, as much as tenfold, while industry partners successfully expanded their market share of the global launch transportation business for significant economic benefit. Using the COTS acquisition model as a basis, a new plan, notionally referred to as Lunar Commercial Orbital Transfer Services (or Lunar COTS), has been developed to determine the potential benefits and challenges of a new Lunar COTS plan[1]. The proposed plan includes low-cost, commercial-enabled missions to prospect for resources, determine the economic viability of extracting those resources and assess the value proposition of using these resources in future exploration architectures such as Mars. These missions would be accomplished in partnership with industry to meet these exploration goals but will also have the capability to carry payloads to meet science goals as well.

Zuniga, Allison↗

NASA NTRS1995

Reusable launch vehicle: Technology development and test program

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) requested that the National Research Council (NRC) assess the Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) technology development and test programs in the most critical component technologies. At a time when discretionary government spending is under close scrutiny, the RLV program is designed to reduce the cost of access to space through a combination of robust vehicles and a streamlined infrastructure. Routine access to space has obvious benefits for space science, national security, commercial technologies, and the further exploration of space. Because of technological challenges, knowledgeable people disagree about the feasibility of a single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) vehicle. The purpose of the RLV program proposed by NASA and industry contractors is to investigate the status of existing technology and to identify and advance key technology areas required for development and validation of an SSTO vehicle. This report does not address the feasibility of an SSTO vehicle, nor does it revisit the roles and responsibilities assigned to NASA by the National Transportation Policy. Instead, the report sets forth the NRC committee's findings and recommendations regarding the RLV technology development and test program in the critical areas of propulsion, a reusable cryogenic tank system (RCTS), primary vehicle structure, and a thermal protection system (TPS).

Source record↗

NASA NTRS2019

Channel Wall Nozzle Manufacturing Technology Advancements for Liquid Rocket Engines

A regeneratively-cooled nozzle is a critical component for expansion of the hot gases to enable high temperature and performance liquid rocket engines systems. Channel wall nozzles are a design solution used across the propulsion industry as a simplified method to fabricate the nozzle structure with internal coolant passages. The scale and complexity of the channel wall nozzle (CWN) design is challenging to fabricate leading to extended lead times and higher costs. Some of these challenges include: 1) unique and high temperature materials, 2) Tight tolerances during manufacturing and assembly to contain high pressure propellants, 3) thin-walled features to maintain adequate wall temperatures, and 4) Unique manufacturing process operations and tooling. The United States (U.S.) National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) along with U.S. specialty manufacturing vendors are maturing modern fabrication techniques to reduce complexity and decrease costs associated with channel wall nozzle manufacturing technology. Additive Manufacturing (AM) is one of the key technology advancements being evaluated for channel wall nozzles. Much of additive manufacturing for propulsion components has focused on powder bed fusion, but the scale is not yet feasible for application to large scale nozzles. NASA is evolving directed energy deposition (DED) techniques for nozzles including arc-based deposition, blown powder deposition, and Laser Wire Direct Closeout (LWDC). There are different approaches being considered for fabrication of the nozzle and each of these DED processes offer unique process steps for rapid fabrication. The arc-based and blown powder deposition techniques are being used for the forming of the CWN liner. A variety of materials are being demonstrated including Inconel 625, Haynes 230, JBK-75, and NASA HR-1. The blown powder DED process is also being demonstrated for forming an integral channel nozzle in a single operation in similar materials. The LWDC process is a method for closing out the channels within the liner and forming the structural jacket using a localized laser wire deposition technique. Identical materials mentioned above have been used for this process in addition to bimetallic closeout (C-18150–SS347, and C-18150–Inconel 625). NASA has completed process development, material characterization, and hot-fire testing on a variety of these channel wall nozzle fabrication techniques. This paper will present an overview of the various processes and materials being evaluated and the results from the hot-fire testing. Future development and technology focus areas will also be discussed relative to channel wall nozzle manufacturing.

Gradl, Paul R.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Spacecraft Observatory Benchmark Problem for Optical Disturbance Rejection

Since mid-1980s NASA has launched several first-generation interplanetary observatory missions. A salient feature of these missions has been the mounting of the optical payload on top of a large flexible space structure. This imposes challenging control-structure interaction problems (CSI) that have been studied over several decades. The Dec. 2021 launch of the James Webb Telescope marks the latest example of such a mission. One way to encourage development of novel control methods is to provide a benchmark problem for researchers. By the mid-2000s, there were a few well-known benchmark problems developed by the control community with a focus on CSI applications. However, in the past 15 years, the control challenges in optical observation missions have shifted from CSI to line-of-sight (LOS) precision pointing. This is because popular designs of the second-generation (Gen II) space earth missions have eliminated the large structure interface by mounting the optical payload directly on top of a rigid bus platform. The focus now is to achieve accurate pointing with maximum rejection of the surrounding disturbances. The NASA Safety and Engineering Center (NESC) has tasked T he Aerospace Corporation to develop a Benchmark Problem to study the challenging control issues that Gen II observatory missions encounter. This software tool is to be released as a public domain platform aimed at government, academic, and industry researchers. The focus of this benchmark problem is for researchers to design a set of innovative payload control laws with the maximum Optical Disturbance Rejection (ODR) capability to meet a set of pre-defined μrad-level of LOS jitter requirements. This paper describes the development of the benchmark problem. Aerospace/NASA will provide an integrated LOS plant model and disturbance/command profiles for users to run their design and simulation with as well as a user’s guide describing the required interfaces. The Aerospace Corp is also working to develop a hardware fast steering mirror testbed for users to demonstrate their innovative design in real hardware, if so desired.

Spacecraft Observatory Benchmark Problem↗

NASA NTRS2018

Centennial Challenges Program Update: From Humanoids to 3D-Printing Houses on Mars, How the Public Can Advance Technologies for NASA and the Nation

The Centennial Challenges (CC) program, part of NASA's Space Technology Mission Directorate (STMD), was founded upon the principle that engaging the public at large was a very important part of garnering the true magnitude of grassroots American innovation and ingenuity. The program uses a focused problem-statement approach to obtain solutions and/or stimulate innovation in key NASA technology gaps by catalyzing sources outside of the traditional aerospace community. The CC program announced the first two challenge competitions in 2005 incentivizing the public to participate using a congressionally authorized prize purse. Since then, the program has developed and executed more than 18 competitions and has awarded over $9 million in prize money. The challenges have covered a variety of technology areas, including propulsion, robotics, communications and navigation, human health, science instrumentation, nanotech, materials and structures, and aerodynamics. Centennial Challenges' accomplishments from October 2016 to December 2017--including significant increases in the amount and diversity of participants; increase in prize purse awards; strong alignments with NASA missions; and partnerships with industry, academia, and other government agencies-are summarized in this paper. Technological advancements, communication strategies, and legal authority are also discussed. NASA is leading the government agencies in the area of prizes and competitions to push technologies, and the CC program is one powerful example of NASA's continuing commitment to technological advancement and innovation through non-traditional programs. Currently, the Agency has in place the proven infrastructure, policies, and people needed to enable the successful use of competition tools, including the ones used as part of the CC program.

Centennial Challenge Prize↗

NASA NTRS2022

UAM Research – X4: Introduction to Community Based Rules (CBRs)

Recent advances in technology have enabled industry development of new and innovative vehicle types, offering lower operating costs and highly automated functionality that facilitates the introduction of new types of operations. These include low-altitude airspace operations with small Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UASs), short distance urban and intercity operations, and high- altitude Upper Class E operations. These and other new operations are expected to result in a much higher operational tempo than is currently experienced across the National Airspace System (NAS). The projected increase in operations, as well as the introduction of new aircraft form factors and supporting technologies—including increasing autonomy—will present challenges to the existing Air Traffic Management (ATM) system, which is currently unable to cost-effectively scale and deliver needed services. In response to these challenges and opportunities, a highly automated, cooperative environment incorporating a federated network has been envisioned and described through multiple operational concepts, depicting the future operating environment as part of the NAS. Foundational to the success of this future operating environment is the establishment of common business rules and understandings across relevant stakeholders, referred to as Community Based Rules (CBRs). Development, adoption, and implementation of CBRs will require collaboration across multiple stakeholders, including operators, support services (industry), and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), to identify and resolve a broad range of questions and challenges. Examples of these questions include “what rules are needed?”, “how are they expressed?”, and “how will they be managed?” This document identifies and describes an initial set of questions and considerations to be examined as efforts begin to create the innovative, automated, cooperative operating environment of the future. The goal is to establish a common frame of reference to support discussions and decisions regarding the future implementation of CBRs as part of the NAS.

Community Based Rules↗

NASA NTRS2015

Characterization of Machine Variability and Progressive Heat Treatment in Selective Laser Melting of Inconel 718

The absence of an economy of scale in spaceflight hardware makes additive manufacturing an immensely attractive option for propulsion components. As additive manufacturing techniques are increasingly adopted by government and industry to produce propulsion hardware in human-rated systems, significant development efforts are needed to establish these methods as reliable alternatives to conventional subtractive manufacturing. One of the critical challenges facing powder bed fusion techniques in this application is variability between machines used to perform builds. Even with implementation of robust process controls, it is possible for two machines operating at identical parameters with equivalent base materials to produce specimens with slightly different material properties. The machine variability study presented here evaluates 60 specimens of identical geometry built using the same parameters. 30 samples were produced on machine 1 (M1) and the other 30 samples were built on machine 2 (M2). Each of the 30-sample sets were further subdivided into three subsets (with 10 specimens in each subset) to assess the effect of progressive heat treatment on machine variability. The three categories for post-processing were: stress relief, stress relief followed by hot isostatic press (HIP), and stress relief followed by HIP followed by heat treatment per AMS 5664. Each specimen (a round, smooth tensile) was mechanically tested per ASTM E8. Two formal statistical techniques, hypothesis testing for equivalency of means and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), were applied to characterize the impact of machine variability and heat treatment on six material properties: tensile stress, yield stress, modulus of elasticity, fracture elongation, and reduction of area. This work represents the type of development effort that is critical as NASA, academia, and the industrial base work collaboratively to establish a path to certification for additively manufactured parts. For future flight programs, NASA and its commercial partners will procure parts from vendors who will use a diverse range of machines to produce parts and, as such, it is essential that the AM community develop a sound understanding of the degree to which machine variability impacts material properties.

Prater, T.↗