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NASA NTRS2001

Standardization of Rocket Engine Pulse Time Parameters

Plumes of bipropellant thrusters are a source of contamination. Small bipropellant thrusters are often used for spacecraft attitude control and orbit correction. Such thrusters typically operate in a pulse mode, at various pulse lengths. Quantifying their contamination effects onto spacecraft external surfaces is especially important for long-term complex-geometry vehicles, e.g. International Space Station. Plume contamination tests indicated the presence of liquid phase contaminant in the form of droplets. Their origin is attributed to incomplete combustion. Most of liquid-phase contaminant is generated during the startup and shutdown (unsteady) periods of thruster pulse. These periods are relatively short (typically 10-50 ms), and the amount of contaminant is determined by the thruster design (propellant valve response, combustion chamber size, thruster mass flow rate, film cooling percentage, dribble volume, etc.) and combustion process organization. Steady-state period of pulse is characterized by much lower contamination rates, but may be lengthy enough to significantly conh'ibute to the overall contamination effect. Because there was no standard methodology for thruster pulse time division, plume contamination tests were conducted at various pulse durations, and their results do not allow quantifying contaminant amounts from each portion of the pulse. At present, the ISS plume contamination model uses an assumption that all thrusters operate in a pulse mode with the pulse length being 100 ms. This assumption may lead to a large difference between the actual amounts of contaminant produced by the thruster and the model predictions. This paper suggests a way to standardize thruster startup and shutdown period definitions, and shows the usefulness of this approach to better quantify thruster plume contamination. Use of the suggested thruster pulse time-division technique will ensure methodological consistency of future thruster plume contamination test programs, and allow accounting for thruster pulse length when modeling plume contamination and erosion effects.

Larin, Max E.↗

NASA NTRS1976

Experimental clean combustor program: Noise study

Under a Noise Addendum to the NASA Experimental Clean Combustor Program (ECCP) internal pressure fluctuations were measured during tests of JT9D combustor designs conducted in a burner test rig. Measurements were correlated with burner operating parameters using an expression relating farfield noise to these parameters. For a given combustor, variation of internal noise with operating parameters was reasonably well predicted by this expression but the levels were higher than farfield predictions and differed significantly among several combustors. For two burners, discharge stream temperature fluctuations were obtained with fast-response thermocouples to allow calculation of indirect combustion noise which would be generated by passage of the temperature inhomogeneities through the high pressure turbine stages of a JT9D turbofan engine. Using a previously developed analysis, the computed indirect combustion noise was significantly lower than total low frequency core noise observed on this and several other engines.

Sofrin, T. G.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Correlation of combustor acoustic power levels inferred from internal fluctuating pressure measurements

Combustion chamber acoustic power levels inferred from internal fluctuating pressure measurements are correlated with operating conditions and chamber geometries over a wide range. The variables include considerations of chamber design (can, annular, and reverse-flow annular) and size, number of fuel nozzles, burner staging and fuel split, airflow and heat release rates, and chamber inlet pressure and temperature levels. The correlated data include those obtained with combustion component development rigs as well as engines.

Vonglahn, U. H.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Correlation of combustor acoustic power levels inferred from internal fluctuating pressure measurements

Von Glahn, U. H.↗

NASA NTRS2001

Non-Intrusive, Laser-Based Imaging of Jet-A Fuel Injection and Combustion Species in High Pressure, Subsonic Flows

The emphasis of combustion research efforts at NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC) is on collaborating with industry to design and test gas-turbine combustors and subcomponents for both sub- and supersonic applications. These next-generation aircraft combustors are required to meet strict international environmental restrictions limiting emissions. To meet these goals, innovative combustor concepts require operation at temperatures and pressures far exceeding those of cur-rent designs. New and innovative diagnostic tools are necessary to characterize these flow streams since existing methods are inadequate. The combustion diagnostics team at GRC has implemented a suite of highly sensitive, nonintrusive optical imaging methods to diagnose the flowfields of these new engine concepts. By using optically accessible combustors and flametubes, imaging of fuel and intermediate combustion species via planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) at realistic pressures are now possible. Direct imaging of the fuel injection process through both planar Mie scattering and PLIF methods is also performed. Additionally, a novel combination of planar fuel fluorescence imaging and computational analysis allows a 3-D examination of the flowfield, resulting in spatially and temporally resolved fuel/air volume distribution maps. These maps provide detailed insight into the fuel injection process at actual conditions, thereby greatly enhancing the evaluation of fuel injector performance and other combustion phenomena. Stable species such as CO2, O2, N2O. and hydrocarbons are also investigated by a newly demonstrated 1-D, spontaneous Raman spectroscopic method. This visible wavelength Raman technique allows the acquisition of quantitative. stable species concentration measurements from the flow.

Locke, Randy J.↗

NASA NTRS2004

Mission Success for Combustion Science

This presentation describes how mission success for combustion experiments has been obtained in previous spaceflight experiments and how it will be obtained for future International Space Station (ISS) experiments. The fluids and combustion facility is a payload planned for the ISS. It is composed of two racks: the fluids Integrated rack and the Combustion INtegrated Rack (CIR). Requirements for the CIR were obtained from a set of combustion basis experiments that served as surrogates for later experiments. The process for experiments that fly on the ISS includes proposal selection, requirements and success criteria definition, science and engineering reviews, mission operations, and postflight operations. By following this process, the microgravity combustion science program has attained success in 41 out of 42 experiments.

Weiland, Karen J.↗

NASA NTRS2002

Gas/Liquid Separator Being Developed for Microgravity

The examination and research of how liquids and gases behave in very low gravity will improve our understanding of the behavior of fluids on Earth. The knowledge of multiphase fluid behavior is applicable to many industries on Earth, including the pharmaceutical, biotechnology, chemical, and nuclear industries, just to name a few. In addition, this valuable knowledge applies very well to the engineering and design of microgravity materials processing and of life-support systems for extended space flight. Professors Ashok Sangani of Syracuse University and Donald Koch of Cornell University are principal investigators in the Microgravity Fluid Physics Program, which is managed and sponsored by the NASA Glenn Research Center. Their flight experiment entitled "Microgravity Observations of Bubble Interactions" (MOBI) is planned for operation in the Fluids and Combustion Facility aboard the International Space Station.

Hoffmann, Monica I.↗

NASA NTRS2004

MOBI and FEANICS Programming in Labview

The flight software engineering branch provides design and development of embedded real-time software applications for flight and supporting ground systems to support the NASA Aeronautics and Space Programs. In addition, this branch evaluates, develops and implements new technologies for embedded real-time systems, and maintains a laboratory for applications of embedded technology. This branch supports other divisions and is involved with many other projects. My mentor Rochelle and I are involved in the Fluids and Combustion Facility (FCF) project, the MOBI project, and the FEANICS project. The Fluids and Combustion Facility (FCF) will occupy two powered racks on the International Space Station (ISS). It will be a permanent modular, multiuser facility to accommodate microgravity science experiments onboard the ISS's U.S. Laboratory Module. FCF will support NASA Human Exploration and Development of Space program objectives requiring sustained, systematic research in the disciplines of fluid physics and combustion science. The fluids experiment is called FIR and the combustion experiment is called CIR. The MOBI Experiment is an experiment that is performed to understand the physics of bubble segregation and resuspension in an inertia, monodisperse gas-liquid suspension, and to understand how bubble pressure resists segregation in suspensions with continuous phase inertia. The main focus of FEANICS and the solid combustion experiments will be to conduct basic and applied scientific investigations in fire-safety to support NASA's Bioastronautics Initiative. Based on data obtained in microgravity and experience gained from the beginning of the U.S. manned space program, these normal gravity flammability assessments have been assumed to be conservative with respect to flammability in all environments. However, some of the complex interactions that govern ignition and flame growth can only be evaluated in the long durations of microgravity available on the ISS. Before any of these projects actually go to the ISS, they are going to be tested on NASA's KC-135 Low-G airplane, the KC-135 Low-G Flight Research aircraft (a predecessor of the Boeing 707) is used to fly parabolas to create 20-25 seconds of weightlessness so that the astronauts can experience and researchers can investigate the effects of zero gravity. My mentor and I have been working with Labview to write the programs that are going to acquire, analyze and present the data acquired from these Test flights on the KC-135. We have been working closely with electrical, and mechanical engineers to make sure the program and the hardware can communicate and perform the operations necessary for the flight test. LabVIEW delivers a powerful graphical development environment for signal acquisition, measurement analysis, and data presentation, giving you the flexibility of a programming language without the complexity of traditional development tools. The programming of the control panel and the code are both done in GUIs which allow for flexibility in the code and the program.

Rios, Jeffrey N.↗

NASA NTRS1993

Turntable mechanism

In vacuum plasma spraying a turntable must be provided which not only makes it possible to rotate and tilt a heavy workpiece, but to operate at vacuum plasma temperatures to do so. In the vacuum plasma coating of large parts such as combustion chambers of rocket engines, the workpiece must not only be rotated, but it must be tilted. Hence, the turntable must be capable not only of supporting heavy parts, but of angulating such heavy workpieces. And this must be done without drive means failure due to extremely high temperatures under which the turntable mechanism is operated. A turntable mechanism is provided which is capable of operating under such conditions. For cooling the turntable drive mechanism, internal cooling means are included.

Myers, William Neill↗

NASA NTRS1998

Propulsion system advances that enable a reusable Liquid Fly Back Booster (LFBB)

This paper provides an overview of the booster propulsion system for the Liquid Fly Back Booster (LFBB). This includes, system requirements, design approach, concept of operations, reliability, safety and cost assumptions. The paper summarizes the findings of the Boeing propulsion team that has been studying the LFBB feasibility as a booster replacement for the Space Shuttle. This paper will discuss recent advances including a new generation of kerosene and oxygen rich pre-burner staged combustion cycle main rocket engines. The engine reliability and safety is expected to be much higher than current standards by adding extra operating margins into the design and normally operating the engines at 75% of engine rated power. This allows for engine out capability. The new generation of main engines operates at significantly higher chamber pressure than the prior generation of gas generator cycle engines. The oxygen rich pre-burner engine cycle, unlike the fuel rich gas generator cycle, results in internally self-cleaning firings which facilitates reusability. Maintenance is further enhanced with integrated health monitoring to improve safety and turn-around efficiency. The maintainability of the LFBB LOX/kerosene engines is being improved by designing the vehicle/engine interfaces for easy access to key engine components.

Keith, E. L.↗

NASA NTRS1998

Propulsion System Advances that Enable a Reusable Liquid Fly Back Booster (LFBB)

This paper provides an overview of the booster propulsion system for the Liquid Fly Back Booster (LFBB). This includes, system requirements, design approach, concept of operations, reliability, safety and cost assumptions. The paper summarizes the findings of the Boeing propulsion team that has been studying the LFBB feasibility as a booster replacement for the Space Shuttle. This paper will discuss recent advances including a new generation of kerosene and oxygen rich pre-burner staged combustion cycle main rocket engines. The engine reliability and safety is expected to be much higher than current standards by adding extra operating margins into the design and normally operating the engines at 75% of engine rated power. This allows for engine out capability. The new generation of main engines operates at significantly higher chamber pressure than the prior generation of gas generator cycle engines. The oxygen rich pre-burner engine cycle, unlike the fuel rich gas generator cycle, results in internally self-cleaning firings which facilitates reusability. Maintenance is further enhanced with integrated health monitoring to improve safety and turn-around efficiency. The maintainability of the LFBB LOX / kerosene engines is being improved by designing the vehicle/engine interfaces for easy access to key engine components.

Keith, Edward L.↗

NASA NTRS2019

Powering OSCAR

Recycling waste has been an issue on Earth for decades. The OSCAR project seeks to find ways to make sure that it does not become an issue in space. The main focus of OSCAR is the combustion of waste and reclamation of gaseous products in microgravity. The first phase of testing relies on a ground rig that operates both under normal (Earth) gravity and in drop tower tests that briefly simulate a microgravity environment. In the second phase, a test will be performed during a suborbital flight were the experiment will be carried out in microgravity. Throughout the spring term, interns have played an integral part in continuing the progress made by the project. They performed work in upgrading the electrical and mechanical systems that make up OSCAR. They made multiple improvements to the test rig's operating software to improve readability and usability. They prepared and edited documents that were vital to the engineering process. And, they were responsible for performing lab tests and refining the lab operations document and procedure. The interns were a big help in maintaining the rigorous test schedule. OSCAR, which stands for Orbital Syngas Commodity Augmentation Reactor, is to find a way to turn astronaut waste into chemical energy. The two parts of this are important: finding a way to dispose of waste generated in space, and seeing if there is a way to recycle that waste into chemical energy. The importance of the disposal aspect is that there is currently no way to dispose of, or recycle, waste that is created in space other than jettisoning it (which is what the ISS does via empty supply capsules). As manned missions go deeper into space, that method will no longer be viable, as a craft would essentially be littering the space and planets that they visit. Energy reclamation is also important because of the high monetary and spatial costs of sending supplies on space missions. Every little bit extra that can be reused out of what is sent can save room and funds for other supplies. The facet of this problem that the OSCAR project is focusing on is how to combust waste in zero gravity. Combustion in the presence of gravity is one of those things that is taken for granted. When something burns on Earth, the flames rise above the fuel as oxygen flows from underneath. In microgravity, the flames surround the object completely, which restricts the amount of oxygen that can reach the fuel, and retards the combustion. OSCAR uses a vortex reaction chamber to counter this phenomenon. The OSCAR test rig will eventually be tested on a suborbital flight to see if it is an effective solution to the issue in real-world conditions. Currently, there is a prototype test rig that is fully functional. This rig has been previously tested in a 2 second drop test at Glenn Research Center’s (GRC) Zero Gravity Facility (ZGF). (The free-fall conditions of the drop mimic microgravity, if only for a brief period of time). This session’s focus was on upgrading the test rig and software, updating the paperwork, performing additional lab tests, and readying the rig for the five second drop test, again at GRC. II. Upgrades The state of the testing rig at the start of the session was in between its configurations for the two second drop tower and the five second drop tower. The rig needed upgrades to address various insufficiencies that either were discovered during the two second campaign or were a direct result of the differences between the two drop tower setups. The main differences that had to be handled were the increase in shock loads from 30g to 65g, a difference in drop indicating signal (on the falling edge of a pulse instead of a change from high to low), and the ambient pressure of the test apparatus (the two second tower dropped the rig in atmosphere, while the five second tower drops in vacuum).

Cauvel, Thomas↗

NASA NTRS1996

Solid Surface Combustion Experiment Completes a Series of Eight Successful Flights

The Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE) was the first combustion experiment to fly in the space shuttle and the first such experiment in the NASA spaceflight program since Skylab. SSCE was actually a series of experiments designed to begin to characterize flame spreading over solid fuels in microgravity and the differences of this flame spreading from normal gravity behavior. These experiments should lead to a better understanding of the physical processes involved--increasing our understanding of fire behavior, both in space and on Earth. SSCE results will help researchers evaluate spacecraft fire hazards. These experiments were conceived by the principal investigator, Professor Robert A. Altenkirch, Dean of Engineering at Washington State University. In the first five flights, the fuel sample--ashless filter paper instrumented with three thermocouples--was mounted in a sealed chamber filled with a 50-percent or 35-percent mixture of oxygen in nitrogen at pressures of 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 atm. In the next three flights, a polymethyl methacrylate (plexiglass) fuel was instrumented with three thermocouples and tested in a 70-percent or 50-percent mixture of oxygen and nitrogen at pressures of 1.0 and 2.0 atm. SSCE is a self-contained, battery-operated experiment that can be flown either in the shuttle middeck or in the Spacelab module. More information about the hardware configuration have been published. This past year, the final two of eight flights were completed on STS-64 and STS-63. The NASA Lewis Research Center designed and built the SSCE payload and performed engineering, testing, scientific, and flight operations support. The SSCE project was supported in some way by nearly every major sector of Lewis' organization. Professor Altenkirch developed a numerical simulation of the flame-spreading process from first principles (of fluid mechanics, heat transfer, and reaction kinetics). The spread rates, flame shape, and thermodynamic data from the SSCE flights are being compared directly with the results of the computational model. Results from the eight flights will be used to formulate an improved solid-phase pyrolysis model. In addition, some results of the flights have been published and presented at international combustion symposiums. Additional solid fuel combustion experiments are being investigated for future tests with the existing hardware.

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DOE OSTI2024

Development of a rate-based ENRTL-RK process model for a water-lean solvent

Advanced water-lean solvents (WLS) for post-combustion CO2 capture offer several advantages over the aqueous amine solvents . WLS have lower parasitic energy penalty, lower corrosion, lower temperature and high-pressure CO2 regeneration leading to lower cost of CO2 capture. RTI International, with funding from the US Department of Energy, has been developing its novel water-lean solvent, that has shown specific reboiler duty of 2.3 GJ/t-CO2 at the 60-kWe pilot testing unit (Tiller Plant, SINTEF, Norway) and 2.6 GJ/t-CO2 at the engineering scale testing system (12 MWe) at the Technology Centre Mongstad (TCM) in Norway. All heat duties, including the one from TCM testing, were consistent with Aspen Plus modeling of the specific configuration of each test plant. This work focuses on the development of a detailed process model using in-house laboratory measurements and process data at pilot scale. The eNTRL-RK model used in this work is based on an unsymmetric activity coefficient model with the reference states chosen to be pure liquids for solvents and ideal dilute solution at unit solute molality (resulting in activity coefficient of unity at infinite dilution) for electrolytes. It uses the Redlich-Kwong equation of state for vapor phase properties and Henry’s law for solubility of supercritical gases. The model was validated using process data from the pilot-scale campaign at the Tiller plant, and the engineering scale test campaign at TCM. Data on CO2 capture rate, absorber, and regenerator temperature profiles and specific reboiler duties from two different test campaigns at Tiller and TCM, were used to further refine and validate the model and the model compares favorably to experimental data. The validation results against TCM campaign will be presented in this work.

CO2 capture↗

NASA NTRS1977

Identification and measurement of combustion noise from a turbofan engine using correlation and coherence techniques

Fluctuating pressure measurements within the combustor and tailpipe of a turbofan engine are made simultaneously with far field acoustic measurements. The pressure measurements within the engine are accomplished with cooled semi-infinite waveguide probes utilizing conventional condenser microphones as the transducers. The measurements are taken over a broad range of engine operating conditions and for 16 far field microphone positions between 10 deg and 160 deg relative to the engine inlet axis. Correlation and coherence techniques are used to determine the relative phase and amplitude relationships between the internal pressures and far field acoustic pressures. The results indicate that the combustor is a low frequency source region for acoustic propagation through the tailpipe and out to the far field. Specifically, it is found that the relation between source pressure and the resulting sound pressure involves a 180 deg phase shift. The latter result is obtained by Fourier transforming the cross correlation function between the source pressure and acoustic pressure after removing the propagation delay time. Further, it is found that the transfer function between the source pressure and acoustic pressure has a magnitude approximately proportional to frequency squared. These results are shown to be consistent with a model using a modified source term in Lighthill's turbulence stress tensor, wherein the fluctuating Reynolds stresses are replaced with the pressure fluctuations due to fluctuating entropy.

Karchmer, A. M.↗

NASA NTRS2004

Fluids and Combustion Facility Acoustic Emissions Controlled by Aggressive Low-Noise Design Process

The Fluids and Combustion Facility (FCF) is a dual-rack microgravity research facility that is being developed by Northrop Grumman Information Technology (NGIT) for the International Space Station (ISS) at the NASA Glenn Research Center. As an on-orbit test bed, FCF will host a succession of experiments in fluid and combustion physics. The Fluids Integrated Rack (FIR) and the Combustion Integrated Rack (CIR) must meet ISS acoustic emission requirements (ref. 1), which support speech communication and hearing-loss-prevention goals for ISS crew. To meet these requirements, the NGIT acoustics team implemented an aggressive low-noise design effort that incorporated frequent acoustic emission testing for all internal noise sources, larger-scale systems, and fully integrated racks (ref. 2). Glenn's Acoustical Testing Laboratory (ref. 3) provided acoustical testing services (see the following photograph) as well as specialized acoustical engineering support as part of the low-noise design process (ref. 4).

Cooper, Beth A.↗

NASA NTRS2001

Numerical Simulation of One- and Two-Phase Flows in Propulsion Systems

In this report, we present some results of problems investigated during joint research between the Hampton University Fluid Mechanics and Acoustics Laboratory (HU/FM&AL), NASA GRC, and the LaRC Hyper-X Program. This work is supported by joint research between the NASA GRC and the Institute of Mechanics at Moscow State University (IM/MSU) in Russia under a CRDF grant. The main areas of current scientific interest of the HU/FM&AL include an investigation of the proposed and patented advanced methods for aircraft engine thrust and noise benefits. These methods are based on nontraditional 3D corrugated and composite nozzle, inlet, propeller and screw designs such as a Bluebell and Telescope nozzle, Mobius-shaped screw, etc. This is the main subject of our other projects, of which one is presented at the current conference. Here we analyze additional methods for exhaust jet noise reduction without essential thrust loss and even with thrust augmentation. Such additional approaches are: (1) to add some solid, fluid, or gas mass at discrete locations to the main supersonic gas stream to minimize the negative influence of strong shock waves formed in propulsion systems. This mass addition may be accompanied by heat addition to the main stream as a result of the fuel combustion or by cooling of this stream as a result of the liquid mass evaporation and boiling; (2) Use of porous or permeable nozzles and additional shells at the nozzle exit for preliminary cooling of the hot jet exhaust and pressure compensation for off-design conditions (so-called continuous ejector with small mass flow rate); and (3) to propose and analyze new effective methods of fuel injection into the flow stream in air-breathing engines. The research is focused on a wide regime of problems in the propulsion field as well as in experimental testing and theoretical and numerical simulation analyses for advanced aircraft and rocket engines. The FM&AL Team uses analytical methods, numerical simulations, and experimental tests at the Hampton University campus, NASA, and IM/MSU. The main outcomes during this reporting period are: (1) Publications: The AIAA Paper #01-1893 has been accepted for the AIAA/NAL-NASDA-ISAS 10th International Space Planes and Hypersonic Systems and Technologies Conference, 24-27 April 2001, Kyoto, Japan. The AIAA Paper #01-3204 has been accepted for presentation at the 37th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference being held on 08-11 July, in Salt Lake City, UT; (2) Grants and proposals: The HU/FM&AL was awarded the NASA grant NAG3-2495 in October 2000 and the CRDF award was granted to the NASA GRC-HU FM&AL and IM/MSU (Russia) in July 2000. A solicited proposal was submitted for the NASA NRA-01GRC-02 competition and two unsolicited proposals to NASA are in preparation; (3) Theory and numerical simulations: Analytical theory, numerical simulation, comparison of theoretical with experimental results, and modification of theoretical approaches, models, grids, etc. Such investigations have been conducted for three main problems: (a) Combustion efficiency optimization in the half-duct combustor system; (b) Drag reduction effects for blunt bodies with solid needles; and (c) Solid particle injection from the butt-end against a supersonic flow. The NASA CFL3D, HU/FM&AL, and IM/MSU GODUNOV codes were used and modified for solution of these problems. The codes are based on full Euler and Navier-Stokes solvers with and without nonequilibrium oxygen-nitrogen and air-hydrogen chemical reactions in laminar and turbulent gas flow regimes; (4) Experimental tests: In the IM/MSU supersonic wind tunnel, experimental tests were conducted with different number, location, and geometric parameters of solid needles mounted at the front of the butt-end in supersonic flow. Optimal parameters were determined that provide minimal butt-end drag in the stationary flow regime. Experimental and numerical simulation results are in good agreement; (5) Student Research Activity: Involvement of one graduate and two undergraduate students as research assistants in the current project.

Gilinsky, Mikhail↗

NASA NTRS1982

Symposium (International) on Combustion, 19th, Technion Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel, August 8-13, 1982, Proceedings

Topics discussed are related to elementary reactions, reaction mechanisms and modeling, laminar flames, flame chemistry, turbulent reacting shear flows, turbulent premixed flames, turbulent combustion measurements, continuous combustors, detonation, detonation and explosion, heterogeneous detonation, propellant combustion, fire-ignition and thermal degradation, fire-flame spread and burning, fire-modeling, spray combustion, and droplet combustion. Coal combustion kinetics and mechanisms are considered along with coal combustion mechanisms and pyrolysis, coal combustion techniques, NOx in coal combustion, gaseous pollutants, soot and PAH, soot and inorganic pollutants, I.C. engine combustion, and ignition and extinction. Attention is given to intricate paths and simple steps in chemical kinetics and combustion, the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by combustion, turbulent flame structure and speed in spark ignition engines, and unresolved problems in SOx, NOx, and soot control in combustion.

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