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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Impact of electric vehicle battery recycling on reducing raw material demand and battery life-cycle carbon emissions in China

The rapid growth of electric vehicles (EVs) in China challenges raw material demand. This study evaluates the impact of recycling and reusing EV batteries on reducing material demand and carbon emissions. Integrating a national-level vehicle stock turnover model with life-cycle carbon emission assessment, we found that replacing nickel-cobalt-manganese batteries with lithium iron phosphate batteries with battery recycling can reduce lithium, cobalt, and nickel demand between 2021 and 2060 by up to 7.8 million tons (Mt) (67%), 12.4 Mt (96%), and 37.2 Mt (93%), respectively, significantly decreasing reliance on import. Moreover, battery recycling coupled with reuse can reduce carbon emissions by up to 6,532-6,864 Mt (36.0-37.9%), depending on four recycling methods employed. However, this reuse strategy delays battery recycling and risks lithium supply shortage, necessitating trade-offs between carbon reduction and material supply. Future technologies, such as lithium-sulfur and all-solid-state batteries, despite their energy efficiency, might exacerbate lithium shortage, underscoring the crucial need for increased lithium supply.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Techno-economic and life cycle analyses of the synthesis of a platinum–strontium titanate catalyst

The heterogeneous platinum/strontium titanate (Pt/SrTiO 3 or Pt/STO) catalyst has garnered significant attention as a promising candidate for the hydrogenolysis of polyolefins to hydrocarbon oils. This study evaluates the cost and environmental impacts of a newly developed scalable Pt/STO catalyst production, which includes the synthesis of the STO support and the deposition of Pt onto the support. This two-step synthesis plays a significant role in assessing the commercial feasibility of the catalyst, while energy consumption during the process plays an important role in its environmental impacts. The CatCost and the Research and Development Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Technologies (R&D GREET) models were used, respectively, to perform techno-economic analysis (TEA) and life cycle analysis (LCA) of the newly developed catalyst. The TEA showed that the raw materials, accounting for approximately 76% of the total operation cost, has a profound effect on the estimated catalyst cost, mainly due to the platinum precursor. The LCA findings indicated that the catalyst production generates greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of 66 kg CO 2 e per kg, primarily due to the use of solvents and electricity in the process. The sensitivity analysis indicated that the total operating costs (OpEX), platinum precursor cost, and spent catalyst value (SCV) significantly impact the cost of the synthesized catalyst. Additionally, adopting solvent recovery strategies and using renewable electricity can reduce the GHG emissions of catalyst production to 29 kg CO 2 e per kg.

Heterogeneous Platinum/strontium titanate Catalyst↗
DOE OSTI2025

Direct flue gas capture for algae cultivation and subsequent valorization: evaluating life cycle emissions and costs

Algae cultivation and processing is an important pathway under discussion within the broader CO 2 capture and utilization umbrella. Here, we discuss the results of a life-cycle analysis and techno-economic analysis of a pilot-scale photobioreactor that uses flue gas directly from natural gas or biogas combustion at 3–5% CO 2 concentration. The system requires minimal freshwater use as it has been successfully run with industrial wastewater and has a much smaller areal footprint compared with open pond cultivation. Introducing the flue gas directly to the photobioreactor avoids the need for CO 2 separation and pressurization, which is undertaken in many other algae cultivation systems. For the end-use of the biomass, the default case assumes conversion of algae to liquid fuels via hydrothermal liquefaction. The results indicate that the pilot-scale system has a higher cost, and comparable greenhouse gas emissions compared to pond-based systems, especially as the grid is anticipated to evolve to a lower carbon intensity. The costs of algae biofuel production range from $\$12–16$ per GGE at the current pilot scale. Depending on whether the source of the carbon is fossil or biogenic, the net emissions are 68 g CO 2 e per MJ and −4 g CO 2 e per MJ respectively. If the marine algae species is used instead of the freshwater species, it offers an additional 16 g CO 2 e per MJ carbon fixation in the form of calcium carbonate. The findings point to broadly desirable trends in GHG emissions and costs, while the discussion aims to shed light on areas that could further improve the scalability of the system.

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Life-cycle analysis of microalgae-based polyurethane foams

Polyurethane plastics are essential in many consumer and commercial products such as insulation, furniture, automotive interiors, and clothing. Pathways for producing polyurethane from microalgae offer an opportunity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and other environmental impacts and can incorporate processes that avoid the use of toxic isocyanates typically used in conventional polyurethane production processes. In this study, the greenhouse gas emissions, fossil energy, and water consumption of biobased polyurethane and biobased non-isocyanate polyurethane were evaluated via life-cycle analysis using the R&D Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Technologies model. Microalgae-based polyurethane foam was found to achieve greenhouse gas emission reductions of up to 79% compared with conventional polyurethane foam production. The greenhouse gas reductions for the non-isocyanate microalgae polyurethane pathway are slightly lower at 58% compared with conventional polyurethane foam. However, it offers additional benefits by reducing toxicity potential compared to the isocyanate polyurethane pathway. The analysis also included a biorefinery-level analysis to evaluate the impact of incorporating polyurethane production into fuel-processing microalgae biorefineries. The sensitivity analyses conducted in this study reveal that improved algae cultivation strategies can lead to decreases of up to 127% and 80% in GHG emissions from the baseline process of Bio-PU and Bio-NIPU, respectively. Likewise, implementation of renewable electricity can result in up to 128% and 74% lower GHG emissions compared to the baseline production of Bio-PU and Bio-NIPU, respectively. Finally, the analysis evaluated different coproduct handling methods including displacement and allocation (based on mass, energy, and market-value). The results suggest that it is important to consider both the displacement and allocation methods as these led to significant differences in the environmental impacts.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Solution scattering at the Life Science X-ray Scattering (LiX) beamline

This work reports the instrumentation and software implementation at the Life Science X-ray Scattering (LiX) beamline at NSLS-II in support of biomolecular solution scattering. For automated static measurements, samples are stored in PCR tubes and grouped in 18-position sample holders. Unattended operations are enabled using a six-axis robot that exchanges sample holders between a storage box and a sample handler, transporting samples from the PCR tubes to the X-ray beam for scattering measurements. The storage box has a capacity of 20 sample holders. At full capacity, the measurements on all samples last for ∼9 h. For in-line size-exclusion chromatography, the beamline-control software coordinates with a commercial high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) system to measure multiple samples in batch mode. The beamline can switch between static and HPLC measurements instantaneously. In all measurements, the scattering data span a wide q -range of typically 0.006–3.2 Å −1 . Functionalities in the Python package py4xs have been developed to support automated data processing, including azimuthal averaging, merging data from multiple detectors, buffer scattering subtraction, data storage in HDF5 format and exporting the final data in a three-column text format that is acceptable by most data analysis tools. These functionalities have been integrated into graphical user interfaces that run in Jupyter notebooks, with hooks for external data analysis software.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

Life‐cycle greenhouse gas emissions associated with nuclear power generation in the United States

Under the 2022 Inflation Reduction Act, tax credits of up to $3/kgH 2 are available to hydrogen producers if they generate emissions at levels below 0.45 kgCO 2 e/kgH 2 , spurring producers to explore how hydrogen production via electrolysis using electricity generated by nuclear power may qualify for such tax credits. With uranium as a primary fuel for nuclear power plants (NPPs) and no on-site emissions, the upstream emissions associated with nuclear fuel supply chains largely determine the carbon intensity of nuclear energy. Using the GREET (Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Technologies) model, we evaluated the life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of uranium production and the use of uranium to generate electricity in light water reactor (LWR) NPPs. We evaluated the process chemicals and energy inputs throughout the nuclear fuel supply chain to identify the major contributors to nuclear fuel cycle GHG emissions. Such emissions are estimated at 3.0 gCO 2 e/kWh at NPPs in the United States. The greatest share of nuclear fuel cycle GHG emissions—comprising 53% of total emissions—are associated with electricity consumption throughout the fuel supply chain. We extended the analysis to include an evaluation of the carbon intensity of H 2 production via electrolysis using nuclear power from LWRs. Finally, we examined the impact of future (2035 and 2050) electricity supply chain scenarios on nuclear fuel cycle GHG emissions. Our analysis revealed a decrease of 33% (2035) and 46% (2050) in the carbon intensity of nuclear electricity relative to current nuclear fuel cycle GHG emissions.

greenhouse gas emissions↗
DOE OSTI2022

A long-life lithium-oxygen battery via a molecular quenching/mediating mechanism

The advancement of lithium-oxygen (Li-O 2 ) batteries has been hindered by challenges including low discharge capacity, poor energy efficiency, severe parasitic reactions, etc. We report an Li-O 2 battery operated via a new quenching/mediating mechanism that relies on the direct chemical reactions between a versatile molecule and superoxide radical/Li 2 O 2 . The battery exhibits a 46-fold increase in discharge capacity, a low charge overpotential of 0.7 V, and an ultralong cycle life >1400 cycles. Featuring redox-active 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy moieties bridged by a quenching-active perylene diimide backbone, the tailor-designed molecule acts as a redox mediator to catalyze discharge/charge reactions and serves as a reusable superoxide quencher to chemically react with superoxide species generated during battery operation. The all-in-one molecule can simultaneously tackle issues of parasitic reactions associated with superoxide radicals, singlet oxygen, high overpotentials, and lithium corrosion. The molecular design of multifunctional additives combining various capabilities opens a new avenue for developing high-performance Li-O 2 batteries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of ethanol produced via fermentation of sugars derived from shrub willow (Salix ssp.) hot water extraction in the Northeast United States

Abstract Background The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been on the rise for more than a century. Bioenergy crops are seen by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change as an essential part of the solution to addressing climate change. To understand the potential impact of shrub willow ( Salix spp . ) crop in the northeast United States, effective and transparent life cycle assessment of these systems needs to occur. Results Here we show, ethanol produced from the fermentation of sugars from hot water extract of willow grown on cropland can sequester 0.012 ± 0.003 kg CO 2eq MJ −1 for a supply system incorporating summer harvest and storage. Despite decreases in soil organic carbon when willow is instead grown on grassland, the produced fuel still can provide significant climate benefits compared to gasoline. Conclusions Shrub willow converted to ethanol can be a carbon negative source of transportation fuel when the electricity and heat required for the conversion process are generated from renewable biomass. The sequestration of carbon in the belowground portion of the plants is essential for the negative GHG balance for cropland and low GHG emissions in grassland.

10 SYNTHETIC FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Chapter 6: Recycling Plastic Waste to Produce Chemicals - A Techno-Economic Analysis and Life-Cycle Assessment

This study presents the results of a preliminary assessment on the technology, economics, and sustainability of using waste plastics as a feedstock to produce low molecular weight olefins via pyrolysis and gasification pathways. We also studied the formation of formaldehyde - an important polymer precursor - via the gasification of waste plastics. Process pathways for recovery of ethylene and propylene and production of formaldehyde from a simulated mixed plastic waste were constructed based on literature data. They included direct and indirect pathways based on either gasification or pyrolysis as the primary conversion step. Results of these studies have shown that significant economic challenges exist of producing olefins via pyrolysis and gasification, with the latter pathway especially difficult. Base costs of pyrolysis naphtha from waste plastics are higher when compared to the same material produced from fossil feedstocks. Base olefin costs for one direct route are two times higher than comparable costs from steam cracking of fossil naphtha. These costs are driven primarily by feedstock costs; some pyrolysis scenarios become more economically feasible when very low feedstock costs are used. Similarly, for gasification, the cost of methanol - the central intermediate - was found to be noticeable higher when produced by gasification of waste plastics compared to current selling prices, which negatively impacts all pathways that go through methanol as the central intermediate. Life-cycle assessment indicates that the production of pyrolysis naphtha from plastics is a carbon intensive operation; no major advantages were found in terms of greenhouse gas emissions for any of the pathways producing C2 and C3 olefins. The results of this study can serve as the baseline for future comparison to other plastic waste valorization processes.

BIOMASS FUELS,ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Comparison of All Solid Cancer Mortality and Incidence Dose-Response in the Life Span Study of Atomic Bomb Survivors, 1958–2009

Recent analysis of all solid cancer incidence (1958–2009) in the Life Span Study (LSS) revealed evidence of upward curvature in the radiation dose response among males but not females. Upward curvature in sex-averaged excess relative risk (ERR) for all solid cancer mortality (1950–2003) was also observed in the 0–2 Gy dose range. As reasons for non-linearity in the LSS are not completely understood, we conducted dose response analyses for all solid cancer mortality and incidence applying similar methods (1958–2009 follow-up, DS02R1 doses, including subjects notin-city (NIC) at the time of the bombing) and statistical models. Incident cancers were ascertained from Hiroshima and Nagasaki cancer registries, while cause of death was ascertained from death certificates over entire Japan. The study included 105,444 LSS subjects who were alive and not known to have cancer before Jan 1, 1958 (80,205 with dose estimates and 25,239 NIC subjects). Between 1958 and 2009, there were 3.1 million person-years (PY) and 22,538 solid cancers for incidence analysis and 3.8 million PY and 15,419 solid cancer deaths for mortality analysis. We fitted sex-specific ERR models adjusted for smoking to both types of data. Over the entire range of doses, solid cancer mortality dose response exhibited a borderline significant upward curvature among males (P=0.062) and significant upward curvature among females (P=0.010); for solid cancer incidence, as before, we found a significant upward curvature among males (P=0.001) but not among females (P=0.624). The sex difference in magnitude of dose response curvature was statistically significant for cancer incidence (P=0.017) but not for cancer mortality (P=0.781). The results of analyses in the 0–2 Gy range and restricted lower dose ranges generally supported inferences made about the sex-specific dose response shape over the entire range of doses for each outcome. Patterns of sex-specific curvature by calendar period (1958–1987 vs 1988–2009) and age at exposure (0–19 vs 20–83) varied between mortality and incidence data, particularly among females, although for each outcome there was an indication of curvature among 0–19 year old male survivors in both calendar periods and among 0–19 year old female survivors in the recent period. Collectively, our findings indicate that the upward curvature in all solid cancer dose response in the LSS is neither specific to males nor to incidence data; it appears to depend on composition of case series and age at exposure or time. Further follow-up and site-specific analyses of cancer mortality and incidence will be important to confirm the emerging trend in dose response curvature among young survivors and unveil the contributing factors and sites.

63 RADIATION, THERMAL, AND OTHER ENVIRON. POLLUTAN↗
DOE OSTI2020

Materials Data on LiFe(PO3)3 by Materials Project

LiFe(PO3)3 crystallizes in the triclinic P-1 space group. The structure is three-dimensional. Li1+ is bonded in a 6-coordinate geometry to six O2- atoms. There are a spread of Li–O bond distances ranging from 1.95–2.54 Å. Fe2+ is bonded to six O2- atoms to form FeO6 octahedra that share corners with six PO4 tetrahedra and an edgeedge with one FeO6 octahedra. There are a spread of Fe–O bond distances ranging from 2.01–2.32 Å. There are three inequivalent P5+ sites. In the first P5+ site, P5+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share a cornercorner with one FeO6 octahedra and corners with two PO4 tetrahedra. The corner-sharing octahedral tilt angles are 55°. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.48–1.63 Å. In the second P5+ site, P5+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share corners with three equivalent FeO6 octahedra and corners with two PO4 tetrahedra. The corner-sharing octahedra tilt angles range from 23–58°. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.48–1.61 Å. In the third P5+ site, P5+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share corners with two equivalent FeO6 octahedra and corners with two PO4 tetrahedra. The corner-sharing octahedra tilt angles range from 53–56°. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.51–1.62 Å. There are nine inequivalent O2- sites. In the first O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted bent 150 degrees geometry to two P5+ atoms. In the second O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted trigonal planar geometry to one Li1+, one Fe2+, and one P5+ atom. In the third O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted trigonal planar geometry to one Li1+, one Fe2+, and one P5+ atom. In the fourth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 1-coordinate geometry to one Li1+, two equivalent Fe2+, and one P5+ atom. In the fifth O2- site, O2- is bonded to two equivalent Li1+, one Fe2+, and one P5+ atom to form distorted edge-sharing OLi2FeP tetrahedra. In the sixth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a bent 120 degrees geometry to two P5+ atoms. In the seventh O2- site, O2- is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to one Li1+ and one P5+ atom. In the eighth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to two P5+ atoms. In the ninth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to one Fe2+ and one P5+ atom.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Materials Data on LiFe(PO3)4 by Materials Project

LiFe(PO3)4 crystallizes in the monoclinic C2/m space group. The structure is three-dimensional. Li1+ is bonded in a water-like geometry to two equivalent O2- atoms. Both Li–O bond lengths are 1.88 Å. Fe3+ is bonded to six O2- atoms to form FeO6 octahedra that share corners with six PO4 tetrahedra. There are two shorter (2.00 Å) and four longer (2.03 Å) Fe–O bond lengths. There are two inequivalent P5+ sites. In the first P5+ site, P5+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share corners with two equivalent FeO6 octahedra and corners with two PO4 tetrahedra. The corner-sharing octahedra tilt angles range from 44–46°. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.50–1.61 Å. In the second P5+ site, P5+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share a cornercorner with one FeO6 octahedra and corners with two PO4 tetrahedra. The corner-sharing octahedral tilt angles are 42°. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.48–1.62 Å. There are seven inequivalent O2- sites. In the first O2- site, O2- is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to one Li1+ and one P5+ atom. In the second O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted bent 150 degrees geometry to one Fe3+ and one P5+ atom. In the third O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted bent 120 degrees geometry to two equivalent P5+ atoms. In the fourth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted bent 120 degrees geometry to two P5+ atoms. In the fifth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted bent 150 degrees geometry to one Fe3+ and one P5+ atom. In the sixth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a bent 120 degrees geometry to two equivalent P5+ atoms. In the seventh O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted bent 120 degrees geometry to one Fe3+ and one P5+ atom.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Materials Data on LiFe(PO3)5 by Materials Project

LiFe(PO3)5 crystallizes in the monoclinic P2_1/c space group. The structure is three-dimensional. Li is bonded in a rectangular see-saw-like geometry to four O atoms. There are a spread of Li–O bond distances ranging from 2.00–2.21 Å. There are two inequivalent Fe sites. In the first Fe site, Fe is bonded to six O atoms to form FeO6 octahedra that share corners with six PO4 tetrahedra. There are a spread of Fe–O bond distances ranging from 1.96–2.05 Å. In the second Fe site, Fe is bonded to six O atoms to form FeO6 octahedra that share corners with six PO4 tetrahedra. There are a spread of Fe–O bond distances ranging from 2.01–2.03 Å. There are five inequivalent P sites. In the first P site, P is bonded to four O atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share corners with two FeO6 octahedra and corners with two PO4 tetrahedra. The corner-sharing octahedra tilt angles range from 45–49°. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.50–1.61 Å. In the second P site, P is bonded to four O atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share corners with two FeO6 octahedra and corners with two PO4 tetrahedra. The corner-sharing octahedra tilt angles range from 47–48°. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.50–1.60 Å. In the third P site, P is bonded to four O atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share a cornercorner with one FeO6 octahedra and corners with two PO4 tetrahedra. The corner-sharing octahedral tilt angles are 43°. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.48–1.64 Å. In the fourth P site, P is bonded to four O atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share a cornercorner with one FeO6 octahedra and corners with two PO4 tetrahedra. The corner-sharing octahedral tilt angles are 43°. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.49–1.62 Å. In the fifth P site, P is bonded to four O atoms to form corner-sharing PO4 tetrahedra. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.50–1.62 Å. There are fifteen inequivalent O sites. In the first O site, O is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to one Li and one P atom. In the second O site, O is bonded in a distorted bent 150 degrees geometry to one Fe and one P atom. In the third O site, O is bonded in a bent 120 degrees geometry to two P atoms. In the fourth O site, O is bonded in a distorted bent 120 degrees geometry to one Li and one P atom. In the fifth O site, O is bonded in a distorted bent 120 degrees geometry to one Fe and one P atom. In the sixth O site, O is bonded in a bent 120 degrees geometry to two P atoms. In the seventh O site, O is bonded in a distorted bent 150 degrees geometry to one Fe and one P atom. In the eighth O site, O is bonded in a distorted bent 120 degrees geometry to one Fe and one P atom. In the ninth O site, O is bonded in a distorted bent 150 degrees geometry to one Fe and one P atom. In the tenth O site, O is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to two P atoms. In the eleventh O site, O is bonded in a distorted bent 120 degrees geometry to one Fe and one P atom. In the twelfth O site, O is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to two P atoms. In the thirteenth O site, O is bonded in a distorted bent 120 degrees geometry to one Li and one P atom. In the fourteenth O site, O is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to two P atoms. In the fifteenth O site, O is bonded in a bent 120 degrees geometry to one Li and one P atom.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Materials Data on LiFe(PO3)3 by Materials Project

LiFe(PO3)3 crystallizes in the triclinic P-1 space group. The structure is three-dimensional. Li1+ is bonded in a 2-coordinate geometry to three O2- atoms. There are a spread of Li–O bond distances ranging from 1.89–2.41 Å. Fe2+ is bonded to five O2- atoms to form distorted FeO5 square pyramids that share corners with five PO4 tetrahedra. There are a spread of Fe–O bond distances ranging from 2.07–2.27 Å. There are three inequivalent P5+ sites. In the first P5+ site, P5+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share corners with two equivalent FeO5 square pyramids and corners with two PO4 tetrahedra. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.50–1.61 Å. In the second P5+ site, P5+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share a cornercorner with one FeO5 square pyramid and corners with two PO4 tetrahedra. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.49–1.62 Å. In the third P5+ site, P5+ is bonded to four O2- atoms to form PO4 tetrahedra that share corners with two equivalent FeO5 square pyramids and corners with two PO4 tetrahedra. There are a spread of P–O bond distances ranging from 1.49–1.61 Å. There are nine inequivalent O2- sites. In the first O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted bent 150 degrees geometry to one Fe2+ and one P5+ atom. In the second O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 3-coordinate geometry to one Li1+, one Fe2+, and one P5+ atom. In the third O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted bent 120 degrees geometry to one Fe2+ and one P5+ atom. In the fourth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 3-coordinate geometry to one Li1+, one Fe2+, and one P5+ atom. In the fifth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a bent 120 degrees geometry to two P5+ atoms. In the sixth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to two P5+ atoms. In the seventh O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted bent 120 degrees geometry to two P5+ atoms. In the eighth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to one Fe2+ and one P5+ atom. In the ninth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to one Li1+ and one P5+ atom.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Materials Data on LiFe(CoO3)2 by Materials Project

LiFe(CoO3)2 crystallizes in the monoclinic C2/m space group. The structure is three-dimensional. Li1+ is bonded to six O2- atoms to form LiO6 octahedra that share corners with two equivalent CoO6 octahedra, corners with four equivalent FeO6 octahedra, edges with two equivalent LiO6 octahedra, edges with two equivalent FeO6 octahedra, and edges with four equivalent CoO6 octahedra. The corner-sharing octahedra tilt angles range from 12–16°. There are four shorter (2.13 Å) and two longer (2.20 Å) Li–O bond lengths. Fe3+ is bonded to six O2- atoms to form FeO6 octahedra that share corners with four equivalent LiO6 octahedra, edges with two equivalent LiO6 octahedra, edges with two equivalent FeO6 octahedra, and edges with four equivalent CoO6 octahedra. The corner-sharing octahedral tilt angles are 12°. There are two shorter (2.01 Å) and four longer (2.03 Å) Fe–O bond lengths. Co4+ is bonded to six O2- atoms to form CoO6 octahedra that share a cornercorner with one LiO6 octahedra, edges with two equivalent LiO6 octahedra, edges with two equivalent FeO6 octahedra, and edges with four equivalent CoO6 octahedra. The corner-sharing octahedral tilt angles are 16°. There are a spread of Co–O bond distances ranging from 1.88–1.91 Å. There are three inequivalent O2- sites. In the first O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted trigonal non-coplanar geometry to one Fe3+ and two equivalent Co4+ atoms. In the second O2- site, O2- is bonded to two equivalent Li1+, two equivalent Fe3+, and one Co4+ atom to form a mixture of edge and corner-sharing OLi2Fe2Co square pyramids. In the third O2- site, O2- is bonded in a rectangular see-saw-like geometry to one Li1+ and three equivalent Co4+ atoms.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Materials Data on LiFe(CO3)2 by Materials Project

LiFe(CO3)2 crystallizes in the monoclinic P2_1 space group. The structure is three-dimensional. Li1+ is bonded to five O2- atoms to form distorted LiO5 trigonal bipyramids that share corners with three equivalent FeO6 octahedra and an edgeedge with one FeO6 octahedra. The corner-sharing octahedra tilt angles range from 34–71°. There are a spread of Li–O bond distances ranging from 2.00–2.36 Å. Fe3+ is bonded to six O2- atoms to form distorted FeO6 octahedra that share corners with three equivalent LiO5 trigonal bipyramids and an edgeedge with one LiO5 trigonal bipyramid. There are a spread of Fe–O bond distances ranging from 2.00–2.14 Å. There are two inequivalent C4+ sites. In the first C4+ site, C4+ is bonded in a trigonal planar geometry to three O2- atoms. There are a spread of C–O bond distances ranging from 1.29–1.31 Å. In the second C4+ site, C4+ is bonded in a trigonal planar geometry to three O2- atoms. There is one shorter (1.29 Å) and two longer (1.31 Å) C–O bond length. There are six inequivalent O2- sites. In the first O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted single-bond geometry to one Li1+, one Fe3+, and one C4+ atom. In the second O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 3-coordinate geometry to one Li1+, one Fe3+, and one C4+ atom. In the third O2- site, O2- is bonded in an L-shaped geometry to one Fe3+ and one C4+ atom. In the fourth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 3-coordinate geometry to one Li1+, one Fe3+, and one C4+ atom. In the fifth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted trigonal planar geometry to one Li1+, one Fe3+, and one C4+ atom. In the sixth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a 3-coordinate geometry to one Li1+, one Fe3+, and one C4+ atom.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Materials Data on LiFe(Si2O5)3 by Materials Project

LiFe(Si2O5)3 crystallizes in the orthorhombic Cmce space group. The structure is three-dimensional. Li is bonded in a 4-coordinate geometry to four O atoms. There is two shorter (1.97 Å) and two longer (1.98 Å) Li–O bond length. Fe is bonded to six O atoms to form FeO6 octahedra that share corners with six SiO4 tetrahedra. There is two shorter (1.94 Å) and four longer (1.98 Å) Fe–O bond length. There are three inequivalent Si sites. In the first Si site, Si is bonded to four O atoms to form SiO4 tetrahedra that share a cornercorner with one FeO6 octahedra and corners with three SiO4 tetrahedra. The corner-sharing octahedral tilt angles are 39°. There are a spread of Si–O bond distances ranging from 1.62–1.64 Å. In the second Si site, Si is bonded to four O atoms to form SiO4 tetrahedra that share a cornercorner with one FeO6 octahedra and corners with three SiO4 tetrahedra. The corner-sharing octahedral tilt angles are 42°. There is one shorter (1.62 Å) and three longer (1.63 Å) Si–O bond length. In the third Si site, Si is bonded to four O atoms to form SiO4 tetrahedra that share a cornercorner with one FeO6 octahedra and corners with three SiO4 tetrahedra. The corner-sharing octahedral tilt angles are 39°. There are a spread of Si–O bond distances ranging from 1.62–1.64 Å. There are nine inequivalent O sites. In the first O site, O is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to two equivalent Si atoms. In the second O site, O is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to one Fe and one Si atom. In the third O site, O is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to two equivalent Si atoms. In the fourth O site, O is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to two Si atoms. In the fifth O site, O is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to two Si atoms. In the sixth O site, O is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to two Si atoms. In the seventh O site, O is bonded in a bent 150 degrees geometry to two equivalent Si atoms. In the eighth O site, O is bonded in a distorted trigonal planar geometry to one Li, one Fe, and one Si atom. In the ninth O site, O is bonded in a distorted trigonal planar geometry to one Li, one Fe, and one Si atom.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Materials Data on LiFe(Se2O5)2 by Materials Project

LiFe(Se2O5)2 crystallizes in the orthorhombic Pnc2 space group. The structure is three-dimensional. Li1+ is bonded to six O2- atoms to form LiO6 octahedra that share edges with two equivalent FeO6 octahedra. There are a spread of Li–O bond distances ranging from 2.15–2.23 Å. Fe3+ is bonded to six O2- atoms to form FeO6 octahedra that share edges with two equivalent LiO6 octahedra. There are a spread of Fe–O bond distances ranging from 2.02–2.07 Å. There are two inequivalent Se4+ sites. In the first Se4+ site, Se4+ is bonded in a distorted trigonal non-coplanar geometry to three O2- atoms. There are a spread of Se–O bond distances ranging from 1.68–1.89 Å. In the second Se4+ site, Se4+ is bonded in a 3-coordinate geometry to three O2- atoms. There are a spread of Se–O bond distances ranging from 1.71–1.86 Å. There are six inequivalent O2- sites. In the first O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted bent 120 degrees geometry to one Li1+ and one Se4+ atom. In the second O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted trigonal planar geometry to one Li1+, one Fe3+, and one Se4+ atom. In the third O2- site, O2- is bonded in a bent 120 degrees geometry to two equivalent Se4+ atoms. In the fourth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted bent 120 degrees geometry to one Fe3+ and one Se4+ atom. In the fifth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a distorted trigonal non-coplanar geometry to one Li1+, one Fe3+, and one Se4+ atom. In the sixth O2- site, O2- is bonded in a bent 120 degrees geometry to two equivalent Se4+ atoms.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗