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Forced convection heat transfer correlations for hydrogen, helium, and nitrogen gases flowing through helical tungsten wire matrices at high surface temperatures
A coarse mesh global climate model has been developed to assess ocean surface temperature (OST) gradient and continentality influences on the Walker circulation, which is characterized in the zonal plane by three pairs of clockwise and counterclockwise cells in the troposphere. The model response exhibits statistically significant changes in the intensity of the various cells and branches with small shifts in the east-west extent. The overall structure in the zonal plane for experiments with the coldest and with mean temperatures, however, remained unchanged. In an experiment involving the replacement of the South American continent by an ocean with OSTs linearly interpolated from the eastern Pacific to the western Atlantic, a dramatic change took place in the structure of the Walker circulation. It is concluded that both continentality and OST gradient are important Walker circulation forcing mechanisms.
A series of three workshops was held between January 1983 and February 1984 to assess the current status of global sea surface temperature (SST) measurement from space. Workshop participants included sensor scientists, radiative transfer specialists, and users of SST data in the disciplines of oceanography and climate. Data from four satellite sensors (three infrared and one microwave) were evaluated by direct comparison with each other and with data from ships, XBTs, and buoys. The satellite data showed good agreement in a global rms sense (about 0.5-1.0 C), but several anomalous regional biases were also observed. The nature of these biases and techniques for their removal require further study.
The Finite-Volume General Circulation Model (FVGCM) has been run in 50 year simulations with the: 1) 1949-1999 Hadley Centre sea surface temperatures (SST), and 2) a fixed annual cycle of SSTs. In this presentation we first show that the 1949-1999 FVGCM simulation produces a very credible stratosphere in comparison to an NCEP/NCAR reanalysis climatology. In particular, the northern hemisphere has numerous major and minor stratospheric warming, while the southern hemisphere has only a few over the 50-year simulation. During the northern hemisphere winter, temperatures are both warmer in the lower stratosphere and the polar vortex is weaker than is found in the mid-winter southern hemisphere. Mean temperature differences in the lower stratosphere are shown to be small (less than 2 K), and planetary wave forcing is found to be very consistent with the climatology. We then will show the differences between our varying SST simulation and the fixed SST simulation in both the dynamics and in two parameterized trace gases (ozone and methane). In general, differences are found to be small, with subtle changes in planetary wave forcing that lead to reduced temperatures in the SH and increased temperatures in the NH.
A high resolution pyrometer was developed and used to obtain temperature profiles of rotating turbine blades at tip speeds up to 366 meters per second (1200 fps). Surface temperature variations from 920 to 1250 K (1200 to 1800 F) can be measured and variations over distances of 0.05 cm (0.020 in.) can be resolved. Temperature profiles were obtained in near real time as hard copies from a computer display terminal. Temperatures measured with the prototype pyrometer and with thermocouples agreed to within 2 percent over the temperature range from 977 to 1144 K (1300 to 1600 F).
A ground and aircraft program was conducted to extend ground based methods for measuring soil moisture and crop water stress to aircraft and satellite altitudes. A 260ha agricultural field in California was used over the 1977-78 growing season. For cloud free days ground based temperature measurements over bare soil were related to soil moisture content. Water stress resulted from too much water, not from lack of it, as was expected. A theoretical examination of the canopy air temperature difference as affected by vapor pressure deficit and net radiation was developed. This analysis shows why surface temperatures delineate crop water stress under conditions of low humidity, but not under high humidity conditions. Multilevel temperatures acquired from the ground, low and high altitude aircraft, and the Heat Capacity Mapping Mission (HCMM) spacecraft were compared for two day and one night overpasses. The U-2 and low altitude temperatures were within 0.5 C. The HCMM data were analyzed using both the pre- and post-launch calibrations, with the former being considerably closer in agreement with the aircraft data than the latter.
The current generation of infrared (IR) and passive microwave (MW) satellite sensors provides highly complementary information for monitoring sea surface temperature (SST). On the one hand, infrared sensors provide high resolution and high accuracy but are obscured by clouds. Microwave sensors on the other hand, provide coverage through non-precipitating clouds but have coarser resolution and generally poorer accuracy. Assuming that the satellite SST measurements do not have spatially variable biases, they can be blended combining the merits of both SST products. These factors have motivated recent work in blending the MW and IR data in an attempt to produce high-accuracy SST products with improved coverage in regions with persistent clouds. The primary sources of retrieval uncertainty are, however, different for the two sensors. The main uncertainty in the MW retrievals lies in the effects of wind-induced surface roughness and foam on emissivity, whereas the IR retrievals are more sensitive to the atmospheric water vapor and aerosol content. Average nighttime differences between the products for the month periods of January 1999 and June 2000 are shown. These maps show complex spatial and temporal differences as indicated by the strong spatially coherent features in the product differences and the changes between seasons. Clearly such differences need to be understood and accounted for if the products are to be combined. The overall goals of this project are threefold: (1) To understand the sources of uncertainty in the IR and MW SST retrievals and to characterize the errors affecting the two types of retrieval as a fiction of atmospheric forcing; (2) To demonstrate how representative the temperature difference between the two satellite products is of Delta T; (3) To apply bias adjustments and to device a comprehensive treatment of the behavior of the temperature difference across the oceanic skin layer to determine the best method for blending thermal infrared and passive microwave measurements of SSTs.
The brightness temperature of Titan at 3 mm wavelength is around 200 K according to Ulich, Conklin, and Dickel (1978). Although an earlier measurement by Briggs is much colder, 200 K as the surface temperature was used to build an atmospheric model with a surface pressure of 21 bars. CH4 clouds form between 100 and 120 km altitude. The visual limb is near 200 km. The methane mixing ratio is 0.25 percent above the clouds and 7 percent below; the dominant gas is assumed to be N2. The thermal opacity is due to pressure-induced absorption in N2 and a trace (0.5 percent) of H2, with some help from cloud particles; unit opacity is reached at 600 mbar, 110 km from the surface. The radius of the solid body in this model is 2700 km, in reasonable agreement with 2600 km obtained if the density is the same as that of Ganymede and Callisto.
Optimal processing of Nimbus 2 data for observation of ocean surface temperature patterns and synoptic changes
The feasibility is demonstrated of a procedure for the remote measurement of sea-surface temperature which inherently corrects for the effect of the intervening atmosphere without recourse to climatological data. The procedure relies upon the near-linear differential absorption properties of the infrared window region between 10 and 13 micrometers and requires radiometric measurements in a minimum of two spectral intervals within the infrared window which have a significant difference in absorption coefficient. The procedure was applied to Nimbus 4 infrared interferometer spectrometer (IRIS) data and to Skylab EREP S191 spectrometer data, and it is demonstrated that atmospheric effects on the observed brightness temperature can be reduced to less than 1.0 Kelvin.
Multispectral image data acquired from the VISSR atmospheric sounder (VAS) on the geostationary GOES satellites were used to estimate sea surface temperatures (SST). A procedure was developed to screen VAS visible and infrared data for cloud-free regions for estimation of SST from the clear infrared radiances. A data set of matches between the VAS radiances and high quality buoy estimates of SST was produced. A linear regression analysis of these matches was performed to generate an empirical algorithm relating the VAS window channel brightness temperatures to the estimates of SST recorded by NOAA fixed environment buoys. Daily maps of SST during Hurricanes Alicia (1983) and Debbie (1982) demonstrated the ability of VAS to monitor air-sea interactions at high temporal and spatial scales.
Interannual variations of total ozone in the equatorial region are discussed in terms of the lower-stratospheric dynamical processes associated with sea surface temperature (SST) changes on an El Nino-Southern Oscillation time scale. Tropospheric diabatic heating by the latent heat release in convective systems drives the interannual variations of tropopause height and atmospheric vertical motions. The adiabatic cooling associated with the dynamically forced ascending motion is subject to radiative heating, which further extends the upwelling motion into the stratosphere. SST variations can thus influence total ozone amounts by changing the tropopause height and vertical advection through modulation of tropospheric diabatic heating. Mechanistic relationships that describe total ozone fluctuations through the advection effect and the tropopause effect of SST variations are derived using the equivalent potential temperature. Total ozone fluctuations are estimated using a quantitative formulation of these mechanistic equations together with the observed SST data. These results indicate that the interannual variations of the zonal wave component of equatorial total ozone are governed by the tropopause effect of SST variations. Preliminary investigation suggests that the annual cycle of tropical total ozone is coupled to the tropopause height changes under the influence of the planetary wave-induced lower-stratospheric temperature rather than local SST.
It has been known for more than a decade that an aqua-planet model with globally uniform sea surface temperature and solar insolation angle can generate ITCZ (intertropical convergence zone). Previous studies have shown that the ITCZ under such model settings can be changed between a single ITCZ over the equator and a double ITCZ straddling the equator through one of several measures. These measures include switching to a different cumulus parameterization scheme, changes within the cumulus parameterization scheme, and changes in other aspects of the model design such as horizontal resolution. In this paper an interpretation for these findings is offered. The latitudinal location of the ITCZ is the latitude where the balance of two types of attraction on the ITCZ, both due to earth's rotation, exists. The first type is equator-ward and is directly related to the earth's rotation and thus not sensitive to model design changes. The second type is poleward and is related to the convective circulation and thus is sensitive to model design changes. Due to the shape of the attractors, the balance of the two types of attractions is reached either at the equator or more than 10 degrees away from the equator. The former case results in a single ITCZ over the equator and the latter case a double ITCZ straddling the equator.
Characterizing temperature and salinity (T-S) conditions is a standard framework in oceanography to identify and describe deep water masses and their dynamics. At the surface, this practice is hindered by multiple air–sea–land processes impacting T-S properties at shorter time scales than can easily be monitored. Now, however, the unsurpassed spatial and temporal coverage and resolution achieved with satellite sea surface temperature (SST) and salinity (SSS) allow us to use these variables to investigate the variability of surface processes at climate-relevant scales. In this work, we use SSS and SST data, aggregated into domains using a cluster algorithm over a T-S diagram, to describe the surface characteristics of the California Current System (CCS), validating them with in situ data from uncrewed Saildrone vessels. Despite biases and uncertainties in SSS and SST values in highly dynamic coastal areas, this T-S framework has proven useful in describing CCS regional surface properties and their variability in the past and in real time, at novel scales. This analysis also shows the capacity of remote sensing data for investigating variability in land–air–sea interactions not previously possible due to limited in situ data.
Investigation of the effects of atmosphere state, nadir angle, cloud amount, cloud height, and random noise on ocean surface temperature sensing from the NOAA series satellites. The results obtained include the finding that a 10% cloud cover can introduce errors that range from 0.5 K to 4 K depending on cumuloform cloud height, which makes necessary a complete cloud elimination in the analysis. A correction scheme for cloud-free conditions is developed that is essentially free of bias.
The general objectives of this project were to improve understanding of the directional emittance properties of land surfaces in the thermal infrared (TIR) region of the electro-magnetic spectrum. To accomplish these objectives our research emphasized a combination of theoretical model development and empirical studies designed to improve land surface temperature (LST) retrievals from space-borne remote sensing instruments. Following the proposal, the main tasks for this project were to: (1) Participate in field campaigns; (2) Acquire and process field, aircraft, and ancillary data; (3) Develop and refine models of LST emission; (4) Develop algorithms for LST retrieval; and (5) Explore LST retrieval methods for use in energy balance models. In general all of these objectives were addressed, and for the most part achieved. The main results from this project are described in the publications arising from this effort. We summarize our efforts related to each of the objectives.
The latest developments in a research effort to advance techniques for measuring surface temperatures and heat fluxes and determining transition locations on projectiles in hypersonic free flight in a ballistic range are described. Spherical and hemispherical titanium projectiles were launched at muzzle velocities of 4.6-5.8 km/sec into air and nitrogen at pressures of 95-380 Torr. Hemisphere models with diameters of 2.22 cm had maximum pitch and yaw angles of 5.5-8 degrees and 4.7-7 degrees, depending on whether they were launched using an evacuated launch tube or not. Hemisphere models with diameters of 2.86 cm had maximum pitch and yaw angles of 2.0-2.5 degrees. Three intensified-charge-coupled-device (ICCD) cameras with wavelength sensitivity ranges of 480-870 nm (as well as one infrared camera with a wavelength sensitivity range of 3 to 5 microns), were used to obtain images of the projectiles in flight. Helium plumes were used to remove the radiating gas cap around the projectiles at the locations where ICCD camera images were taken. ICCD and infrared (IR) camera images of titanium hemisphere projectiles at velocities of 4.0-4.4 km/sec are presented as well as preliminary temperature data for these projectiles. Comparisons were made of normalized temperature data for shots at approx.190 Torr in air and nitrogen and with and without the launch tube evacuated. Shots into nitrogen had temperatures ~6% lower than those into air. Evacuation of the launch tube was also found to lower the projectile temperatures by approx.6%.
The effect of the Antarctic ozone hole extends downwards from the stratosphere, with clear signatures in surface weather patterns including a positive trend in the Southern Annular Mode (SAM). Several recent studies have used coupled climate models to investigate the impact of these changes on Southern Ocean sea surface temperature (SST), notably motivated by the observed cooling from the late 1970s. Here we examine the robustness of these model results through comparison of both previously published and new simulations. We focus on the calculation of ‘climate response functions' (CRFs), transient responses to an instantaneous step-change in ozone concentrations. The CRF for most models consists of a rapid cooling of SST, followed by a slower warming trend. However, inter-model comparison reveals large uncertainties, such that even the sign of the impact of ozone depletion on historical SST, when reconstructed from the CRF, remains unconstrained. Comparison of these CRFs with SST responses to a hypothetical step-change in the SAM, inferred through lagged linear regression, shows broadly similar results. Causes of uncertainty are explored by examining relationships between model climatologies and their CRFs. The inter-model spread in CRFs can be reproduced by varying a single subgrid-scale mixing parameter within a single model. Antarctic sea-ice CRFs are also calculated: these do not generally exhibit the two-time-scale behavior of SST, suggesting a complex relationship between the two. Finally, by constraining model climatology-response relationships with observational values, we conclude that ozone depletion in unlikely to have been the primary driver of the observed SST cooling trend.