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Processing steps are reduced by using technique of electroless plating. Metalization and one doping steps are combined, and only one heat treatment is required. Concept is modification to method of fabricating solar cells by diffusing different dopants into opposite sides of a silicon wafer.
The global distribution of helium and argon in the terrestrial thermosphere is described. It is based on the extension of a three-dimensional single-fluid numerical model of the thermosphere previously developed by the authors to treat the dynamics of a minor gas imbedded in a background gas made up of N2, O2, and O. Empirical models of the upper atmosphere, based on satellite drag and mass spectrometer data, are used to specify the background gas density and temperature as functions of altitude, latitude, and local time for a given day of the year. Effects of solar activity, eddy diffusion, and exospheric transport on the global distribution of minor gases are investigated.
A four-step mechanism is proposed for the acceleration of energetic protons and relativistic electrons in Jupiter's magnetosphere. According to this mechanism, photoelectrons and ions from the Jovian ionosphere are: (1) ejected along magnetic-field lines toward the equator by the centrifugal force of corotation; (2) accelerated by magnetic-field annihiliation in the magnetotail, which process is modulated at Jupiter's rotational frequency; (3) trapped on closed field lines in the reconnection process, convected inward toward Jupiter from the merging region, and subjected to adiabatic compression; and (4) diffused inward by the conventional radial-diffusion process through a violation of the third adiabatic invariant. It is shown that the proposed mechanism produces magnetic moments much larger than those available from inward diffusion of solar-wind particles or motional emf acceleration at the Galilean satellites, provides a natural explanation for the 10-hr periodicity of the energetic particle fluxes observed inside the magnetosphere by the Pioneer spacecraft, and also produces a 10-hr periodicity in the energetic particle flux from the magnetosphere into interplanetary space in such a way that the phase of interplanetary flux variations is locked to the rotational phase of Jupiter
Low cost solar cells and arrays with high end-of-life efficiency are evaluated through two approaches: one, to obtain increased device efficiency at no increase in cost and two, to reduce the manufacturing costs of space solar cells and arrays. Technology efforts encompass high efficiency epitaxial cells, high efficiency wraparound contact solar cells, economical diffusion sources, automated cell fabrication and development of easily applied, durable cover glasses. The examination of ion-implanted profile tailored junctions and additional development of screen printed contact technology to cell development are also considered.
Whenever a solar radiometer is used to measure direct solar radiation, some diffuse sky radiation invariably enters the detector's field of view along with the direct beam. Therefore, the atmospheric optical depth obtained by the use of Bouguer's transmission law (also called Beer-Lambert's law), that is valid only for direct radiation, needs to be corrected by taking account of the scattered radiation. This paper discusses the correction factors needed to account for the diffuse (i,e., singly and multiply scattered) radiation and the algorithms developed for retrieving aerosol size distribution from such measurements. For a radiometer with a small field of view (half-cone angle of less than 5 deg) and relatively clear skies (optical depths less than 0.4), it is shown that the total diffuse contribution represents approximately 1% of the total intensity.
An empirical study was performed to evaluate the validity of various insolation models which employ either an isotropic or an anisotropic distribution approximation for sky light when predicting insolation on tilted surfaces. Data sets of measured hourly insolation values were obtained over a 6-month period using pyranometers which received diffuse and total solar radiation on a horizontal plane and total radiation on surfaces tilted toward the equator at 37 degrees and 60 degrees angles above the horizon. Data on the horizontal surfaces were used in the insolation models to predict insolation on the tilted surface; comparisons of measured vs calculated insolation on the tilted surface were examined to test the validity of the sky light approximations. It was found that the Liu-Jordan isotropic distribution model provides a good fit to empirical data under overcast skies but underestimates the amount of solar radiation incident on tilted surfaces under clear and partly cloudy conditions.
Attention is given to the error that can occur in all radiometric measurements owing to the presence of nearby objects. When a researcher positions himself on the side of a target point opposite the sun, his body gives rise to two erroneous effects. First, it blocks a portion of the incoming diffuse sky radiance to the target point, and second, it reflects incoming diffuse and direct solar irradiance and ground exitance onto the target point. It is noted that the same phenomenon occurs for any nearby object, whether it be a field truck, a building structure, or a row of trees. This error deriving from nearby objects is often not recognized by researchers or is considered insignificant with no knowledge of its magnitude. The approach taken here is to mathematically model the radiant transfers that take place between the global irradiance, panel, or scene and the object and to report the magnitude of this error for various solar zenith angles, wavelengths, size and distances of objects (steradian blockage), and spectral reflectances of the scene and object. The scene, object, and panel are assumed to be Lambertian, and the object is always located on the side of the target point opposite the sun.
A review of the major techniques for measuring minority carrier diffusion lengths in solar cells is given. Limits of applicability are indicated for each method, as relevant to indirect bandgap materials such as silicon, and direct bandgap materials like gallium arsenide. A discussion and bibliography is presented for the following techniques: uniform generation, electron beam induced current, Schottky barrier (and other steady-state) photocurrent, surface photovoltage, transient decay, and luminescence.
The calibration requirements for ocean-viewing sensors are outlined, and the present methods of effecting such calibration are described in detail. For future instruments it is suggested that provision be made for the sensor to view solar irradiance in diffuse reflection and that the moon be used as a source of diffuse light for monitoring the sensor stability.
The energy and radiation balance components were determined over three grass surfaces, located on the Streletskaya steppe during July 1991. The Bowen ratio energy balance method was used to determine the sensible and latent heat flux densities using six computer controlled systems. A total of 126 variables were sampled, including global, diffuse, and reflected solar radiation, long wave radiation (up and down), net radiation, photosynthetically active radiation above and below the vegetation, infrared surface temperatues, soil temperature and heat flow, air temperature and vapor pressure at two levels, wind speed and direction, and precipitation. The ranking of the sites from greatest to smallest for net radiation and latent heat flux density were preserve, mowed in 1990, and mowed in 1991. The ranking of the sites from greatest to smallest for sensible heat flux density were mowed in 1990, mowed in 1991, and preserve.
The Chicxulub impact crater, buried in the Yucatan carbonate platform in Mexico, is the site of the impact purported to have caused mass extinctions at the Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) boundary. A recently discovered Chicxulub ejecta deposit in Belize contains evidence of carbonate vaporization and precipitation from the vapor plume. Sulfate clasts are almost absent in the Belize ejecta, but are abundant in the coarse ejecta near the crater rim, hwich may reflect the greater abundance of sulfates deep in the target section. The absence of sulfate precipitates in Belize may indicate that most of the vaporized sulfur was deposited in the upper atmosphere. Hydrocode modeling of the impact indicates that between 0.4 to 7.0 x 10(exp 17) g of sulfur were vaporized by the impact in sulfates. Laser experiments indicate that SO2, SO3, and SO4 are produced, and that complex chemical reactions between plume constituents occur during condensation. The sulfur released as SO3 or SO4 converted rapidly into H2HO4 aerosol. A radiative transfer model coupled with a model of coagulation predicts that the aerosol prolonged the initial blackout period caused by impact dust only if it contained impurities. The sulfur released as SO2 converted to aerosol slowly due to the rate limiting oxidation of SO2. Radiative transfer calculations combined with rates of acid production, coagulation, and diffusion indicate that solar transmission was reduced to 10-20 percent of normal for a period of 8-13 years. This reduction produced a climate forcing (cooling) of -300 Wm(exp -2), which far exceeded the +8 Wm(exp -2) greenhouse warming caused by the CO2 released through the vaporization of carbonates, and therefore produced a decade of freezing and near-freezing temperatures. Several decades of moderate warming followed the decade of severe cooling due to the long residence time of CO2. The prolonged impact winter may have been a major cause of the K/T extinctions.
Noble gases and N were analyzed in handpicked metal separates from lunar soil 68501 by a combination of step-wise combustions and pyrolyses. Helium and Ne were found to be unfractionated with respect to one another when normalized to solar abundances, for both the bulk sample and for all but the highest temperature steps. However, they are depleted relative to Ar, Kr and Xe by at least a factor of 5. The heavier gases exhibit mass-dependent fractionation relative to solar system abundance ratios but appear unfractionated, both in the bulk metal and in early temperature steps, when compared to relative abundances derived from lunar ilmenite 71501 by chemical etching, recently put forward as representing the abundance ratios in solar wind. Estimates of the contribution of solar energetic particles (SEP) to the originally implanted solar gases, derived from a basic interpretation of He and Ne isotopes, yield values of about 10%. Analysis of the Ar isotopes requires a minimum of 20% SEP, and Kr isotopes, using our preferred composition for solar wind Kr, yield a result that overlaps both these values. It is possible to reconcile the data from these gases if significant loss of solar wind Ar, Kr and presumably Xe has occurred relative to the SEP component, most likely by erosive processes that are mass independent, although mass-dependent losses (Ar greater than Kr greater than Xe) cannot be excluded. If such losses did occur, the SEP contribution to the solar implanted gases must have been no more than a few percent. Nitrogen is a mixture of indigenous meteoritic N, whose isotopic composition is inferred to be relatively light, and implanted solar N, which has probably undergone diffusive redistribution and fractionation. If the heavy noble gases have not undergone diffusive loss, then N/Ar in the solar wind can be inferred to be at least several times the accepted solar ratio. The solar wind N appears, even after correction for fractionation effects, to have a minimum delta N-15 value equal to or greater than +150% and a more probable value equal to or greater than +200%.
The Chicxulub impact crater in Mexico is the site of the impact purported to have caused mass extinctions at the Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) boundary. 2-D hydrocode modeling of the impact, coupled with studies of the impact site geology, indiate that between 0.4 and 7.0 x 10(exp 17) g of sulfur were vaporized by the impact into anhydrite target rocks. A small portion of the sulfur was released as SO3 or SO4, which converted rapidly into H2SO4 aerosol and fell as acid rain. A radiative transfer model, coupled with a model of coagulation indicates that the aerosol prolonged the initial blackout period caused by impact dust only if the aerosol contained impurities. A larger portion of sulfur was released as SO2, which converted to aerosol slowly, due to the rate-limiting oxidation of SO2. Our radiative transfer calculations, combined with rates of acid production, coagulation, and diffusion indicate that solar transmission was reduced to 10-20% of normal for a period of 8-13 yr. This reduction produced a climate forcing (cooling) of -300 W/sq.m, which far exceeded the +8 W/sq.m greenhouse warming, caused by the CO2 released through the vaporization of carbonates, and therefore produced a decade of freezing and near-freezing temperatures. Several decades of moderate warming followed the decade of severe cooling due to the long residence time of CO2. The prolonged impact winter may have been a major cause of the K/T extinctions.
The paper presents the attitude reorientation taking the advantage of solar radiation pressure without use of any fuel aboard. The strategy had been adopted to make Hayabusa spacecraft keep pointed toward the Sun for several months, while spinning. The paper adds the above mentioned results reported in Sedona this February showing another challenge of combining ion engines propulsion tactically balanced with the solar radiation torque with no spin motion. The operation has been performed since this March for a half year successfully. The flight results are presented with the estimated solar array panel diffusion coefficient and the ion engine's swirl torque.
Indium phosphide (InP) solar cells were made on silicon (Si) wafers (InP/Si) by to take advantage of both the radiation-hardness properties of the InP solar cell and the light weight and low cost of Si wafers. The InP/Si cell application is for long duration and/or high radiation orbit space missions. Spire has made N/P InP/Si cells of sizes up to 2 cm by 4 cm with beginning-of-life (BOL) AM0 efficiencies over 13% (one-sun, 28C). These InP/Si cells have higher absolute efficiency and power density after a high radiation dose than gallium arsenide (GaAs) or silicon (Si) solar cells after a fluence of about 2e15 1 MeV electrons/sq. cm. In this work, we investigate the minority carrier (electron) base diffusion lengths in the N/P InP/Si cells. A quantum efficiency model was constructed for a 12% BOL AM0 N/P InP/Si cell which agreed well with the absolutely measured quantum efficiency and the sun-simulator measured AM0 photocurrent (30.1 mA/sq. cm). This model was then used to generate a table of AM0 photocurrents for a range of base diffusion lengths. AM0 photocurrents were then measured for irradiations up to 7.7e16 1 MeV electrons/sq. cm (the 12% BOL cell was 8% after the final irradiation). By comparing the measured photocurrents with the predicted photocurrents, base diffusion lengths were assigned at each fluence level. A damage coefficient K of 4e-8 and a starting (unirradiated) base electron diffusion length of 0.8 microns fits the data well. The quantum efficiency was measured again at the end of the experiment to verify that the photocurrent predicted by the model (25.5 mA/sq. cm) agreed with the simulator-measured photocurrent after irradiation (25.7 mA/sq. cm).
We present gamma-ray measurements of a large solar flare that occurred beyond the western solar limb on September 29, 1989. The gamma-ray spectrum shows a neutron capture line which is much stronger than predicted by limb-darkening curves that fit the measurements for flares on the visible hemisphere. We show that this strong neutron capture line can be explained if, in addition to the compact impulsive phase component that normally dominates the total fluence, there is a spatially extended component. For the September 29, 1989 flare we find that such a spatially extended region must subtend more than about 30 deg on the solar surface. We suggest that the extended component could be powered by particles that diffuse from a compact impulsive region or by particles that diffuse into the lower solar atmosphere from a large-scale acceleration site.
The important aspects of solar modulation of galactic cosmic rays are outlined. The conditions in the interplanetary medium that affect the modulation are summarized, and equations are developed to describe the behavior of cosmic rays in the solar system, including the effects of diffusion, convection, and energy loss due to adiabatic deceleration in the expanding solar wind. The particle diffusion coefficient is determined from the power spectra of interplanetary magnetic field irregularities. After some solutions for the modulation equations have been derived, the probable forms of the unmodulated cosmic ray spectra are discussed. Other topics include solar cycle variations, energy loss effects, anisotrophies, and gradients.
The feasibility of using alkali metal-silicon halide diffusion flames to produce solar-grade silicon in large quantities and at low cost is demonstrated. Prior work shows that these flames are stable and that relatively high purity silicon can be produced using Na + SiCl4 flames. Silicon of similar purity is obtained from Na + SiF4 flames although yields are lower and product separation and collection are less thermochemically favored. Continuous separation of silicon from the byproduct alkali salt was demonstrated in a heated graphite reactor. The process was scaled up to reduce heat losses and to produce larger samples of silicon. Reagent delivery systems, scaled by a factor of 25, were built and operated at a production rate of 0.5 kg Si/h. Very rapid reactor heating rates are observed with wall temperatures reaching greater than 2000 K. Heat release parameters were measured using a cooled stainless steel reactor tube. A new reactor was designed.