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NASA NTRS2024

Multispacecraft Observations of a Widespread Solar Energetic Particle Event on 2022 February 15–16

On 2022 February 15–16, multiple spacecraft measured one of the most intense solar energetic particle (SEP) events observed so far in Solar Cycle 25. This study provides an overview of interesting observations made by multiple spacecraft during this event. Parker Solar Probe (PSP) and BepiColombo were close to each other at 0.34–0.37 au (a radial separation of ∼0.03 au) as they were impacted by the flank of the associated coronal mass ejection (CME). At about 100° in the retrograde direction and 1.5 au away from the Sun, the radiation detector on board the Curiosity surface rover observed the largest ground-level enhancement on Mars since surface measurements began. At intermediate distances (0.7–1.0 au), the presence of stream interaction regions (SIRs) during the SEP arrival time provides additional complexities regarding the analysis of the distinct contributions of CME-driven versus SIR-driven events in observations by spacecraft such as Solar Orbiter and STEREO-A, and by near-Earth spacecraft like ACE, SOHO, and WIND. The proximity of PSP and BepiColombo also enables us to directly compare their measurements and perform cross-calibration for the energetic particle instruments on board the two spacecraft. Our analysis indicates that energetic proton measurements from BepiColombo and PSP are in reasonable agreement with each other to within a factor of ∼1.35. Finally, this study introduces the various ongoing efforts that will collectively improve our understanding of this impactful, widespread SEP event.

Solar energetic particles↗
NASA NTRS2013

Curiosity: How to Boldly Go...

Operating a one-ton rover on the surface of Mars requires more than just a joystick and an experiment. With 10 science instruments, 17 cameras, a radioisotope thermoelectric generator and lasers, Curiosity is the largest and most complex rover NASA has sent to Mars. Combined with a 1 way light time of 4 to 20 minutes and a distributed international science and engineering team, it takes a lot of work to operate this mega-rover. The Mars Science Lab's operations team has developed an organization and process that maximizes science return and safety of the spacecraft. These are the voyages of the rover Curiosity, its 2 year mission, to determine the habitability of Gale Crater, to understand the role of water, to study the climate and geology of Mars.

Pyrzak, Guy↗
NASA NTRS2014

The Search for Organic Compounds of Martian Origin in Gale Crater by the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) Instrument on Curiosity

One of the key objectives of the Mars Science Laboratory rover and the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument suite is to determine the inventory of organic and inorganic volatiles in the atmosphere and surface regolith and rocks to help assess the habitability potential of Gale Crater. The SAM instrument on the Curiosity rover can detect volatile organic compounds thermally evolved from solid samples using a combination of evolved gas analysis (EGA) and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GCMS) (Mahaffy et al. 2012). The first solid samples analyzed by SAM, a scoop of windblown dust and sand at Rocknest, revealed several chloromethanes and a C4-chlorinated hydrocarbon derived primarily from reactions between a martian oxychlorine phase (e.g. perchlorate) and terrestrial carbon from N-methyl-N-(tertbutyldimethylsilyl)- trifluoroacetamide (MTBSTFA) vapor present in the SAM instrument background (Glavin et al. 2013). After the analyses at Rocknest, Curiosity traveled to Yellowknife Bay and drilled two separate holes in a fluvio-lacustrine sediment (the Sheepbed unit) designated John Klein and Cumberland. Analyses of the drilled materials by both SAM and the CheMin X-Ray Diffraction instrument revealed a mudstone consisting of ~20 wt% smectite clays (Ming et al. 2013; Vaniman et al. 2013), which on Earth are known to aid the concentration and preservation of organic matter. Oxychlorine compounds were also detected in the Sheepbed mudstone during pyrolysis; however, in contrast to Rocknest, much higher levels of chloromethanes were released from the Sheepbed materials, suggesting an additional, possibly martian source of organic carbon (Ming et al. 2013). In addition, elevated abundances of chlorobenzene and a more diverse suite of chlorinated alkanes including dichloropropane and dichlorobutane detected in Cumberland compared to Rocknest suggest that martian or meteoritic organic carbon sources may be preserved in the mudstone (Freissinet et al. 2013). Chloromethane and dichloromethane were also identified after thermal volatilization of the surface soils by the GCMS instruments at the Viking landing sites, although no other chlorinated hydrocarbons were reported (Biemann et al. 1977). Here we focus on the origin of the chlorinated hydrocarbons detected in the Sheepbed mudstone by SAM and the implications for the preservation of organic matter in near-surface materials on Mars.

Mars Curiosity Rover↗
NASA NTRS2022

How do we get robots to take self-portraits on Mars? – Perseverance-Ingenuity and Curiosity selfies

The Perseverance rover landed in Jezero crater,Mars, on 18 February 2021. It carried with it a technologydemonstration, the Ingenuity helicopter, which hasdemonstrated the first controlled, powered flight on anotherplanet. This paper describes how an iconic, April 2021 imageof the Perseverance rover with the Ingenuity helicopter wasdesigned and executed as the rover was getting ready todeploy the helicopter. WATSON is a camera mounted at theend of the rover’s robotic arm and was used to acquire theself-portrait. WATSON is designed to take close up picturesof rocks and regolith on Mars but can also provide views ofthe terrain. A single image covers a small portion of thescene. In order to a create a mosaic covering the full roverand helicopter, 62 WATSON images were acquired. To allowthe images to be mosaicked together, the camera needs to bekept in the same spot. The robotic arm has five degrees offreedom for motion; small changes in orientation can requiresignificant repositioning of the robotic arm joints. Todocument this, a movie of the arm motion was acquired bythe rover’s mast-mounted left navigation camera pointed atthe WATSON and robotic arm while it was simultaneouslymoving to acquire the selfie. For the first time, we alsocaptured the sound of the arm motion as it was acquiring theselfie. In the case of the Perseverance selfie with the Ingenuity helicopter, we also had to think about how toposition the rover with respect to the helicopter and fit theselfie acquisition into the helicopter prime mission timeline.This paper also describes the history of NASA Mars roverselfies.

Beegle, Luther↗
NASA NTRS2014

A Curious Year on Mars - Long-Term Thermal Trends for Mars Science Laboratory Rover's First Martian Year

By the time of this writing, Curiosity, the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Rover, has weathered four seasons in Gale Crater, just south of and approaching the foothills of the 5-km high Aeolis Mons, known as "Mount Sharp," at 4.59 deg south latitude. The mission design included a much broader latitude range of 30 deg north to 30 deg south constraining some of the Rover environmental requirements and operations. To date, Curiosity has relayed over 150 MB of thermal telemetry. Curiosity has relayed over 150 MB of thermal telemetry through four seasons. The trends and idiosyncrasies revealed through four seasons of telemetry from Mars are discussed. The better-characterized thermal environment allows for less conservatism in operational models and increases the amount of science data collection. Examples include: the elimination of overheating concerns for some cameras and the use of the previous sol's temperature telemetry along with the conservative soak temperature curve from the winter thermal model, to produce a custom heating prescription for the upcoming weeks thus increasing operation time and reducing heating times. This paper discusses the lessons learned for Rover operation as well as general idiosyncrasies discovered about the local environment-such as the effect of orientation on subsystem temperature variation, a regular morning and afternoon wind, ground and air microclimates with distinct temperature differences from other terrain, and how the Rover affects the local environment. This paper further documents and explains some of the interesting highs and lows of the temperature telemetry data as well as offers explanations for sudden temperature changes on board the Rover.

HRS↗
NASA NTRS2013

Design and Development of the MSL Descent Stage Propulsion System

On August 5, 2012, The Mars Science Laboratory mission successfully landed the largest interplanetary rover ever built, Curiosity, on the surface of Mars. The Entry, Descent, and Landing (EDL) phase of this mission was by far the most complex landing ever attempted on a planetary body. The Descent Stage Propulsion System played an integral and critical role during Curiosity's EDL. The Descent Stage Propulsion System was a one of a kind hydrazine propulsion system designed specifically for the EDL phase of the MSL mission. It was designed, built, and tested at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). The purpose of this paper is to present an overview of the design and development of the MSL Descent Stage Propulsion System. Driving requirements, system design, component selection, operational sequence of the system at Mars, new developments, and key challenges will be discussed.

Weiss, Jeffrey M.↗
NASA NTRS2017

Key Differences in Operating a Rover on the Moon vs. Mars

The command and control model for spacecraft operations, as well as the distribution of tasks between ground assets and in space assets, whether with a crew or solely robotic, is fundamentally constrained by the round trip light time between the space asset and the control facility (presumably on Earth, though not required). For an asset on Mars, the round trip light time varies, from roughly fourteen minutes to up to forty minutes. For a Lunar asset the round-trip light time is measured in only a few seconds, but current communications systems may more than double the latency with system overhead. For a Lunar Asset the total command latency may range from six seconds to more than forty, depending on communications overhead and data rates. Further, these variables are not always predictable, thus complicating operations. There are several differentiating factors for Lunar vs. Mars operations, Round trip light time/Atmosphere/Lighting and ShadowsTerrain type and knowledge/Round trip light time has implications for the distribution of tasks between ground and in space assets. Even at Lunar Distances, the combination of round trip light time plus communications systems overhead does not enable joy stick driving of a rover. The best that can be done, if driving from Earth, is near real time command and control. By 2030, driving from in space may be possible. Productivity on Mars requires either long operational sequences of commands, as is done for current rovers such as Curiosity, significant autonomous capability or, as may be possible by 2030, command and control support from space. Another implication of the long round trip light time from Earth to Mars, is that flight software functions must be resident on the in space asset. On the Moon, there is considerably more flexibility, enabling processing functions, to be resident on Earth or in space. This provides the opportunity to take advantage of the considerable processing power available on the ground, but may be constrained by data rates. On the Moon, for practical operational purposes, there is no atmosphere. Hence there is no scattering of light in the shadows. This has implications for image interpretation and driving near the poles. The Moon has permanently shadowed regions (PSR), unique terrain with unknown surface properties. With no scattering of light in shadows, driving on the Moon, particularly at the poles, where we have strong evidence of water, may prove to be hazardous and complex, requiring non-optical sensors, such as LIDAR.

Trimble, Jay↗
NASA NTRS2016

Mars Aeolian Wind Tunnel Test Stand Group #20

The exploration of Mars has long been a theme in science fiction entertainment. However, with successful NASA Mars rover missions such as Curiosity and Opportunity, this fiction has become a reality. As NASA prepares additional rovers to explore the Red Planet, the agency is looking for ways to make exploration more efficient. One solution is to use a small, lightweight, co-axial rotor helicopter to scout geographical conditions on the Martian surface. This type of flight is unprecedented, as no vehicle has flown in the Martian atmosphere. With that said, extensive experimentation is needed to develop such a vehicle. Initial testing has been completed on what has been dubbed the Mars Scout Helicopter (MSH), and the next phase of testing will include wind tunnel testing of the rotor in forward flight in a reduced pressure environment, simulating the atmosphere of Mars.

Mars Aeolian↗
NASA NTRS2015

Characterization of Synthetic and Natural Manganese Oxides as Martian Analogues

Recent discoveries of highly concentrated manganese oxides in Gale Crater and on the rim of Endeavour Crater by the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity and Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity, respectively, imply more highly oxidizing aqueous conditions than previously recognized. Manganese oxides are a significant environmental indicator about ancient aqueous conditions, provided the phases can be characterized reliably. Manganese oxides are typically fine-grained and poorly crystalline, making the mineral structures difficult to determine, and they generally have very low visible reflectance with few distinctive spectral features in the visible to near infrared, making them a challenge for interpretation from remote sensing data. Therefore, these recent discoveries motivate better characterization using methods available on Mars, particularly visible to near infrared (VNIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffractometry (XRD), and compositional measurements. Both rovers have complementary instruments in this regard. Opportunity is equipped with its multispectral visible imager, Pancam, and an Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS), and Curiosity has the multispectral Mastcam, ChemCam (laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy and passive spectroscopy), and APXS for in situ characterization, and ChemMin (XRD) for collected samples.

Fox, V. K.↗
NASA NTRS2018

Mars Helicopter Technology Demonstrator

Aerial exploration of Mars with helicopters could provide mission capabilities that go beyond that of orbiting satellites, landed spacecraft and rovers. Helicopters allow examination of Mars at visual resolutions comparable to landers and rovers but over much longer ranges. They could access and land at designated targets in a controlled manner and could be used to carry or retrieve small payloads. Helicopters could enhance rover missions by quickly scouting out safe traverse routes or providing reconnaissance on possible science target destinations and, as standalone systems, could be used to explore areas that may not be reachable by rovers. Mars helicopters may also be considered as elements of a sample return architecture where they could be used for timely retrieval of small science samples back to a Mars ascent vehicle for return to Earth. The challenge to helicopter use on Mars is the thin carbon dioxide atmosphere with approximately 1% of the density of Earth’s atmosphere. Much like the Sojourner rover on the Pathfinder mission paved the way for the Spirit, Opportunity, Curiosity and the Mars 2020 rovers, an initial demonstration on Mars is desirable so as to inform the development of future helicopter missions. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory is leading a collaborative effort with AeroVironment Inc., and NASA centers Ames, Langley and Glenn to develop a small helicopter as a technology demonstrator. In this paper we briefly describe the results of this effort including results from controlled free-flight of a full-scale (approx 850 g) prototype flown in a test chamber under Mars conditions, the design and development of the 1800 g (not-to-exceed mass) technology demonstrator helicopter, and the operation of the helicopter.

Balaram, J. (Bob)↗
NASA NTRS2016

Acid Sulfate Alteration on Mars

A variety of mineralogical and geochemical indicators for aqueous alteration on Mars have been identified by a combination of surface and orbital robotic missions, telescopic observations, characterization of Martian meteorites, and laboratory and terrestrial analog studies. Acid sulfate alteration has been identified at all three landing sites visited by NASA rover missions (Spirit, Opportunity, and Curiosity). Spirit landed in Gusev crater in 2004 and discovered Fe-sulfates and materials that have been extensively leached by acid sulfate solutions. Opportunity landing on the plains of Meridiani Planum also in 2004 where the rover encountered large abundances of jarosite and hematite in sedimentary rocks. Curiosity landed in Gale crater in 2012 and has characterized fluvial, deltaic, and lacustrine sediments. Jarosite and hematite were discovered in some of the lacustrine sediments. The high elemental abundance of sulfur in surface materials is obvious evidence that sulfate has played a major role in aqueous processes at all landing sites on Mars. The sulfate-rich outcrop at Meridiani Planum has an SO3 content of up to 25 wt.%. The interiors of rocks and outcrops on the Columbia Hills within Gusev crater have up to 8 wt.% SO3. Soils at both sites generally have between 5 to 14 wt.% SO3, and several soils in Gusev crater contain around 30 wt.% SO3. After normalization of major element compositions to a SO3-free basis, the bulk compositions of these materials are basaltic, with a few exceptions in Gusev crater and in lacustrine mudstones in Gale crater. These observations suggest that materials encountered by the rovers were derived from basaltic precursors by acid sulfate alteration under nearly isochemical conditions (i.e., minimal leaching). There are several cases, however, where acid sulfate alteration minerals (jarosite and hematite) formed in open hydrologic systems, e.g., in Gale crater lacustrine mudstones. Several hypotheses have been suggested for the aqueous formation of sulfate-bearing phases under acidic conditions on the surface of Mars including (1) sulfuric acid weathering of basaltic materials; (2) oxidative weathering of ultramafic igneous rocks containing sulfides; (3) acid fog weathering of basaltic materials, and (4) near-neutral pH subsurface solutions rich in Fe2(+) that were rapidly oxidized to Fe3(+), which produced excess acidity as iron was oxidized on exposure to O2 or photo-oxidized by ultraviolet radiation at the martian surface. Next, we briefly describe evidence for these hypothesis.

Ming, D. W.↗
NASA NTRS2014

Gale Crater and Impact Processes - Curiosity's First 364 Sols on Mars

Impact processes at all scales have been involved in the formation and subsequent evolution of Gale crater. Small impact craters in the vicinity of the Curiosity MSL landing site and rover traverse during the 364 Sols after landing have been studied both from orbit and the surface. Evidence for the effect of impacts on basement outcrops may include loose blocks of sandstone and conglomerate, and disrupted (fractured) sedimentary layers, which are not obviously displaced by erosion. Impact ejecta blankets are likely to be present, but in the absence of distinct glass or impact melt phases are difficult to distinguish from sedimentary/volcaniclastic breccia and conglomerate deposits. The occurrence of individual blocks with diverse petrological characteristics, including igneous textures, have been identified across the surface of Bradbury Rise, and some of these blocks may represent distal ejecta from larger craters in the vicinity of Gale. Distal ejecta may also occur in the form of impact spherules identified in the sediments and drift material. Possible examples of impactites in the form of shatter cones, shocked rocks, and ropy textured fragments of materials that may have been molten have been observed, but cannot be uniquely confirmed. Modification by aeolian processes of craters smaller than 40 m in diameter observed in this study, are indicated by erosion of crater rims, and infill of craters with aeolian and airfall dust deposits. Estimates for resurfacing suggest that craters less than 15 m in diameter may represent steady state between production and destruction. The smallest candidate impact crater observed is ∼0.6 m in diameter. The observed crater record and other data are consistent with a resurfacing rate of the order of 10 mm/Myr; considerably greater than the rate from impact cratering alone, but remarkably lower than terrestrial erosion rates.

Curiosity↗
NASA NTRS2012

Scaled CMOS Reliability and Considerations for Spacecraft Systems : Bottom-Up and Top-Down Perspectives

The recently launched Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) flagship mission, named Curiosity, is the most complex rover ever built by NASA and is scheduled to touch down on the red planet in August, 2012 in Gale Crater. The rover and its instruments will have to endure the harsh environments of the surface of Mars to fulfill its main science objectives. Such complex systems require reliable microelectronic components coupled with adequate component and system-level design margins. Reliability aspects of these elements of the spacecraft system are presented from bottom- up and top-down perspectives.

derating thermal margin↗
NASA NTRS2022

Planning for a Martian Road Trip – The Mars2020 Mobility Systems Design

The Perseverance rover landed in Jezero Crateron Mars on February 18, 2021, marking the beginning of anepic road trip across Mars. The guiding principle of thePerseverance rover design was to replicate Curiosity, exceptfor when the new mission objectives mandated a change.The scientific objectives require that Perseverance drivemore quickly and more efficiently through more complexterrain than its predecessors. The mobility system forPerseverance exemplifies this, in that key portions areidentical, yet others have had major upgrades. Key upgradesinclude more tractive and more robust tires, newengineering cameras, a new computer dedicated for imageprocessing, and a more efficient AutoNav software suite.This paper will follow how the scientific objectives led tothe key and driving mobility requirements and how theserequirements were decomposed at the different subsystems.

Stragier, Michael M.↗