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Mars Sample Return: Risk Management & Sample Safety Assessment

Returning samples from Mars has long been a major planetary science objective due to the high scientific value and transformative potential of the resulting data. An exciting dimension of this objective is the potential for the detection of ancient microbiological life, and the possibility of improving our understanding of the evolution of habitable environments on Mars and the development of life on Earth. To ensure that returned samples meet stringent planetary protection requirements and do not expose Earth to potential biohazards, the joint NASA/ESA Sample Receiving Project (SRP) assembled the Sample Safety Assessment Protocol Tiger Team (SSAP-TT). Members were recruited with the specific goal of creating a multi-disciplinary and internationally distributed team of experts in their respective fields across the federal government, academia, and private industry. This team was chartered with reassessing previous sample safety assessment strategies, defining what constitutes a biological hazard, developing a protocol to test for potential biohazards, and establishing a statistical framework to determine if samples are “safe” for release. The team developed a three-step protocol, supported by a Bayesian statistical framework, to assess whether returned samples contain potential biohazards that could present a risk to Earth’s biosphere. Initial conclusions indicated that an effective and comprehensive safety assessment protocol is feasible using modern techniques and does not require an excessive amount of sample consumption or traditional microbiological detection methodology. Herein, we will present an overview of the MSR SRP, the proposed safety assessment protocol, and how aspects of this novel approach can be applied to biological assessment in healthcare product manufacturing practices.

Alvin L Smith↗
NASA NTRS2000

Mars Exploration Architecture

The architecture of NASA's program of robotic Mars exploration missions received an intense scrutiny during the summer months of 1998. We present here the results of that scrutiny, and describe a list of Mars exploration missions which are now being proposed by the nation's space agency. The heart of the new program architecture consists of missions which will return samples of Martian rocks and soil back to Earth for analysis. A primary scientific goal for these missions is to understand Mars as a possible abode of past or present life. The current level of sophistication for detecting markers of biological processes and fossil or extant life forms is much higher in Earth-based laboratories than possible with remotely deployed instrumentation, and will remain so for at least the next decade. Hence, bringing Martian samples back to Earth is considered the best way to search for the desired evidence. A Mars sample return mission takes approximately three years to complete. Transit from Earth to Mars requires almost a single year. After a lapse of time of almost a year at Mars, during which orbital and surface operations can take place, and the correct return launch energy constraints are met, a Mars-to-Earth return flight can be initiated. This return leg also takes approximately one year. Opportunities to launch these 3-year sample return missions occur about every 2 years. The figure depicts schedules for flights to and from Mars for Earth launches in 2003, 2005, 2007 and 2009. Transits for less than 180 deg flight angle, measured from the sun, and more than 180 deg are both shown.

Jordan, James F.↗
NASA NTRS1976

A versatile system for biological and soil chemical tests on a planetary landing craft. I - Scientific objectives

We describe an approach for the remote detection and characterization of life in planetary soil samples. A mass spectrometer is used as the central sensor to monitor changes in the gas phase in eleven test cells filled with soil. Many biological assays, ranging from general 'in situ' assays to specific metabolic processes (such as photosynthesis, respiration, denitrification, etc.) can be performed by appropriate additions to the test cell via attached preloaded injector capsules. The system is also compatible with a number of chemical assays such as the analysis of atmospheric composition (both chemical and isotopic), the status of soil water, and the determination of compounds of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur in the soil.

Radmer, R. J.↗
NASA NTRS1981

Life in the universe; Proceedings of the Conference, Moffett Field, CA, June 19, 20, 1979

Papers are presented concerning the nature and distribution of life in the universe, particularly in the areas of the origins of life, life-supporting environments, the evolution of life in the Galaxy, and the detectability of technological civilizations. Specific topics include a preliminary discussion of the role of life in the universe, followed by examination of the role of water in thin films and cold environments in the origin of life, the relation between atmospheric composition and evolution, the possibility of planetary orbits in multiple star systems, and the prospects for detecting extrasolar planetary systems. Attention is also given to the origin of protein synthesis, the evolution of intelligence in multicellular organisms, the manifestations of advanced civilizations, and plans and principles for SETI.

Billingham, J.↗
NASA NTRS1991

Compositions of near-Earth asteroids

The goal is to determine whether any of the near-earth asteroids contain water-bearing phyllosilicate (clay) minerals. If these minerals are present, they would provide a readily available source of water for propellant generation and use in life support systems. Telescopic detection of water on the near-earth asteroids is complicated because thermal emission from the asteroid itself masks the diagnostic absorption features for objects this close to the sun. Sophisticated thermal models are necessary to determine whether the absorption features are present. This year, development of these models was continued and more telescopic data to test the models was obtained.

Lebofsky, L. A.↗
NASA NTRS2003

Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamic Chemistry and the Composition of the Atmosphere of Mars

A high priority objective of the Mars Exploration Program is to Determine if life exists today (MEPAG Goal I, Objective A). The measurement of gases of biogenic origin may be an approach to detect the presence of microbial life on the surface or subsurface of Mars. Chemical thermodynamic calculations indicate that on both Earth and Mars, certain gases should exist in extremely low concentrations, if at all. Microbial metabolic activity is an important non-equilibrium chemistry process on Earth, and if microbial life exists on Mars, may be an important nonequilibrium chemistry process on Mars. The non-equilibrium chemistry of the atmosphere of Mars is discussed in this paper.

J S Levine↗
NASA NTRS2010

Simple Check Valves for Microfluidic Devices

A simple design concept for check valves has been adopted for microfluidic devices that consist mostly of (1) deformable fluorocarbon polymer membranes sandwiched between (2) borosilicate float glass wafers into which channels, valve seats, and holes have been etched. The first microfluidic devices in which these check valves are intended to be used are micro-capillary electrophoresis (microCE) devices undergoing development for use on Mars in detecting compounds indicative of life. In this application, it will be necessary to store some liquid samples in reservoirs in the devices for subsequent laboratory analysis, and check valves are needed to prevent cross-contamination of the samples. The simple check-valve design concept is also applicable to other microfluidic devices and to fluidic devices in general. These check valves are simplified microscopic versions of conventional rubber- flap check valves that are parts of numerous industrial and consumer products. These check valves are fabricated, not as separate components, but as integral parts of microfluidic devices. A check valve according to this concept consists of suitably shaped portions of a deformable membrane and the two glass wafers between which the membrane is sandwiched (see figure). The valve flap is formed by making an approximately semicircular cut in the membrane. The flap is centered over a hole in the lower glass wafer, through which hole the liquid in question is intended to flow upward into a wider hole, channel, or reservoir in the upper glass wafer. The radius of the cut exceeds the radius of the hole by an amount large enough to prevent settling of the flap into the hole. As in a conventional rubber-flap check valve, back pressure in the liquid pushes the flap against the valve seat (in this case, the valve seat is the adjacent surface of the lower glass wafer), thereby forming a seal that prevents backflow.

Willis, Peter A.↗
NASA NTRS2010

Slopes To Prevent Trapping of Bubbles in Microfluidic Channels

The idea of designing a microfluidic channel to slope upward along the direction of flow of the liquid in the channel has been conceived to help prevent trapping of gas bubbles in the channel. In the original application that gave rise to this idea, the microfluidic channels are parts of micro-capillary electrophoresis (microCE) devices undergoing development for use on Mars in detecting compounds indicative of life. It is necessary to prevent trapping of gas bubbles in these devices because uninterrupted liquid pathways are essential for sustaining the electrical conduction and flows that are essential for CE. The idea is also applicable to microfluidic devices that may be developed for similar terrestrial microCE biotechnological applications or other terrestrial applications in which trapping of bubbles in microfluidic channels cannot be tolerated. A typical microCE device in the original application includes, among other things, multiple layers of borosilicate float glass wafers. Microfluidic channels are formed in the wafers, typically by use of wet chemical etching. The figure presents a simplified cross section of part of such a device in which the CE channel is formed in the lowermost wafer (denoted the channel wafer) and, according to the present innovation, slopes upward into a via hole in another wafer (denoted the manifold wafer) lying immediately above the channel wafer. Another feature of the present innovation is that the via hole in the manifold wafer is made to taper to a wider opening at the top to further reduce the tendency to trap bubbles. At the time of reporting the information for this article, an effort to identify an optimum technique for forming the slope and the taper was in progress. Of the techniques considered thus far, the one considered to be most promising is precision milling by use of femtosecond laser pulses. Other similar techniques that may work equally well are precision milling using a focused ion beam, or a small diamond-tipped drill bit.

Greer, Harold E.↗
NASA NTRS2015

Intelligent Observation Strategies for Geosynchronous Remote Sensing for Natural Hazards

Geosynchronous satellites offer a unique perspective for monitoring environmental factors important to understanding natural hazards and supporting the disasters management life cycle, namely forecast, detection, response, recovery and mitigation. In the NASA decadal survey for Earth science, the GEO-CAPE mission was proposed to address coastal and air pollution events in geosynchronous orbit, complementing similar initiatives in Asia by the South Koreans and by ESA in Europe, thereby covering the northern hemisphere. In addition to analyzing the challenges of identifying instrument capabilities to meet the science requirements, and the implications of hosting the instrument payloads on commercial geosynchronous satellites, the GEO-CAPE mission design team conducted a short study to explore strategies to optimize the science return for the coastal imaging instrument. The study focused on intelligent scheduling strategies that took into account cloud avoidance techniques as well as onboard processing methods to reduce the data storage and transmission loads. This paper expands the findings of that study to address the use of intelligent scheduling techniques and near-real time data product acquisition of both the coastal water and air pollution events. The topics include the use of onboard processing to refine and execute schedules, to detect cloud contamination in observations, and to reduce data handling operations. Analysis of state of the art flight computing capabilities will be presented, along with an assessment of cloud detection algorithms and their performance characteristics. Tools developed to illustrate operational concepts will be described, including their applicability to environmental monitoring domains with an eye to the future. In the geostationary configuration, the payload becomes a networked thing with enough connectivity to exchange data seamlessly with users. This allows the full field of view to be sensed at very high rate under the control of ground infrastructure, resulting in improved efficiencies, accuracy and science benefits. Hence a remote sensing payload and its data may become one of millions of connected objects in the emerging Internet of Things (IoT), and be as easily accessible by a users smart phone as any other smart appliance.

0↗
NASA NTRS2018

A Versatile Simulation Framework for Elastodynamic Modeling of Structural Health Monitoring

Structural health monitoring (SHM) has the capacity to reduce failure by detecting damage during service life, by periodic, automated monitoring. Guided Wave (GW) Ultrasound is a common SHM approach for aerospace structures. Modelling the physics of GW SHM systems provides a route for understanding system dependencies, capabilities and limitations as damage evolves during service life. Such a toolset can strengthen the understanding of the connection between GW SHM results and the true material state. The most useful modelling tools are those that provide versatile solutions with respect to the simulated component geometry and computational grid connectivity. This work details a versatile application programming interface (API) for the elastodynamic finite integration technique for modelling GW SHM of metals. The custom code implementation, EFIT-CompCell, allows for the modelling of diverse geometries by automatically balancing the message passing interface parallelization layout. The user provides the basic parameters of the simulation and the software automatically performs an initial balancing based on anticipated computational loads, and establishes the CPU communication patterns for any geometry. This work describes the programming philosophy and code structure used to create EFIT-CompCell and compares its performance and capacity to simulation tools that are more specialized for specific architectures. Results are presented for a simulation of GW SHM of an aluminum fuselage section being tested by the FAA. The simulation consists of 733M voxels which took approximately 70 hours to complete 25000 time steps using 40 Intel Xeon E5-4650v2 Ivy Bridge processor cores.

Gregory, Elizabeth D.↗
NASA NTRS1987

A preliminary study of a Mars penetrator system for subsurface exobiological exploration

The earth seems to stand alone among the planets of the solar system in that its surface, atmosphere, and hydrosphere provide an environment conducive to the maintenance of life. At one time, Mars was also considered to have the potential to harbor life. However, the absence of detectable organic molecules at the two Viking landing sites and the absence of liquid water anywhere on the surface seems to indicate that life is not present on Mars now. There are, however, many indications that the surface of Mars was less hostile in the distant past and the possibility that life may have existed on primordial Mars or that prebiotic chemistry may have occurred can not be excluded. The search for the organic evidence of this prebiotic or biotic activity will require a subsurface study of possible sediments at several sites. The purpose of this paper is to propose and describe a device termed a penetrator to emplant the required instrumentation beneath the surface (2-4 m) at likely sites to search for the evidence of biogenic organic material. The paper examines, in detail, the rationale for the scientific activity, any issues of technical feasibility, and describes the associated system requirements.

Swenson, Byron L.↗
NASA NTRS2012

Meteoritic Input of Amino Acids and Nucleobases: Methodology and Implications for the Origins of Life

The discoveries of amino acids of extraterrestrial origin in many meteorites over the last 40 years have revolutionized the Astrobiology field. A variety of non-terrestrial amino acids similar to those found in life on Earth have been detected in meteorites. A few amino acids have even been found with chiral excesses, suggesting that meteorites could have contributed to the origin of homochirality in life on Earth. In addition to amino acids, which have been productively studied for years, sugar-like molecules, activated phosphates, and nucleobases have also been determined to be indigenous to numerous meteorites. Because these molecules are essential for life as we know it, and meteorites have been delivering them to the Earth since accretion, it is plausible that the origin(s) of life on Earth were aided by extraterrestrially-synthesized molecules. Understanding the origins of life on Earth guides our search for life elsewhere, helping to answer the question of whether biology is unique to Earth. This tutorial review focuses on meteoritic amino acids and nucleobases, exploring modern analytical methods and possible formation mechanisms. We will also discuss the unique window that meteorites provide into the chemistry that preceded life on Earth, a chemical record we do not have access to on Earth due to geologic recycling of rocks and the pervasiveness of biology across the planet. Finally, we will address the future of meteorite research, including asteroid sample return mIssIons.

Burton, Aaron S.↗
NASA NTRS2012

Understanding Prebiotic Chemistry Through the Analysis of Extraterrestrial Amino Acids and Nucleobases in Meteorites

The discoveries of amino acids of extraterrestrial origin in many meteorites over the last 50 years have revolutionized the Astrobiology field. A variety of non-terrestrial amino acids similar to those found in life on Earth have been detected in meteorites. A few amino acids have even been found with chiral excesses, suggesting that meteorites could have contributed to the origin of homochirality in life on Earth. In addition to amino acids, which have been productively studied for years, sugar-like molecules, activated phosphates, and nucleobases have also been determined to be indigenous to numerous meteorites. Because these molecules are essential for life as we know it, and meteorites have been delivering them to the Earth since accretion, it is plausible that the origines) of life on Earth were aided by extrataterrestrially-synthesized molecules. Understanding the origins of life on Earth guides our search for life elsewhere, helping to answer the question of whether biology is unique to Earth. This tutorial focuses on meteoritic amino acids and nucleobases, exploring modern analytical methods and possible formation mechanisms. We will also discuss the unique window that meteorites provide into the chemistry that preceded life on Earth, a chemical record we do not have access to on Earth due to geologic recycling of rocks and the pervasiveness of biology across the planet. Finally. we will address the future of meteorite research, including asteroid sample return missions.

Burton, Aaron S.↗
NASA NTRS2012

Analyzers Measure Greenhouse Gases, Airborne Pollutants

In complete darkness, a NASA observatory waits. When an eruption of boiling water billows from a nearby crack in the ground, the observatory s sensors seek particles in the fluid, measure shifts in carbon isotopes, and analyze samples for biological signatures. NASA has landed the observatory in this remote location, far removed from air and sunlight, to find life unlike any that scientists have ever seen. It might sound like a scene from a distant planet, but this NASA mission is actually exploring an ocean floor right here on Earth. NASA established a formal exobiology program in 1960, which expanded into the present-day Astrobiology Program. The program, which celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2010, not only explores the possibility of life elsewhere in the universe, but also examines how life begins and evolves, and what the future may hold for life on Earth and other planets. Answers to these questions may be found not only by launching rockets skyward, but by sending probes in the opposite direction. Research here on Earth can revise prevailing concepts of life and biochemistry and point to the possibilities for life on other planets, as was demonstrated in December 2010, when NASA researchers discovered microbes in Mono Lake in California that subsist and reproduce using arsenic, a toxic chemical. The Mono Lake discovery may be the first of many that could reveal possible models for extraterrestrial life. One primary area of interest for NASA astrobiologists lies with the hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. These vents expel jets of water heated and enriched with chemicals from off-gassing magma below the Earth s crust. Also potentially within the vents: microbes that, like the Mono Lake microorganisms, defy the common characteristics of life on Earth. Basically all organisms on our planet generate energy through the Krebs Cycle, explains Mike Flynn, research scientist at NASA s Ames Research Center. This metabolic process breaks down sugars for energy to fuel cellular functions. "We think this chemical process did not exist when life first formed on Earth," he says, "because it is based on oxygen being available, and there was little oxygen available on the early Earth." It is possible that there are anaerobic regions beneath the sea floor in which life forms like those early non-Krebs Cycle microbes may yet exist. To detect and potentially collect samples of life emerging from hydrothermal vents, Flynn and his colleagues created Medusa, a multi-sensor instrument designed for long-term observation of diked vents on the ocean floor. When the vents erupt, Medusa assesses indicators of life within the expelled water. If the results are positive, the observatory collects samples and detaches from the ocean floor, making the long journey to the surface for retrieval by scientists. One of the indicators Medusa measures is the ratio of carbon isotopes in the water, namely carbon-12 and carbon-13. Living organisms preferentially take up carbon-12, Flynn says, so examining the ratio of these isotopes can help to determine the source of carbon in an environment as either biological or non-biological. "On Mars, there is evidence of localized methane in the atmosphere, and that methane could come from biological sources or from geochemical ones," Flynn says. "Determining the background planetary carbon isotope ratios and then evaluating the specific carbon ratios in this methane would help to determine how it was formed." A long-duration observatory similar to Medusa could one day provide essential evidence for or against the presence of life on the Red Planet or beneath the ice-crusted oceans of Europa.

Source record↗
NASA NTRS2023

Evaluation of the Interference of Tenax®TA Adsorbent With Dimethylformamide Dimethyl Acetal Reagent for Gas Chromatography-Dragonfly Mass Spectrometry and Future Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry in Situ Analysis

Among future space missions, national aeronautics and space administration (NASA) selected two of them to analyze the diversity in organic content within Martian and Titan soil samples using a gas chromatograph – mass spectrometer (GC–MS) instrument. The Dragonfly space mission is planned to be launched in 2027 to Titan's surface and explore the Shangri-La surface region for years. One of the main goals of this mission is to understand the past and actual abundant prebiotic chemistry on Titan, which is not well characterized yet. The ExoMars space mission is planned to be launched in 2028 to Mars’ surface and explore the Oxia Planum and Mawrth Vallis region for years. The main objectives focus on the exploration of the subsurface soil samples, potentially richer in organics, that might be relevant for the search of past life traces on Mars where irradiation does not impact the matrices and organics. One recently used sample pre-treatment for gas chromatography – mass spectrometry analysis is planned on both space missions to detect refractory organic molecules of interest for astrobiology. This pre-treatment is called derivatization and uses a chemical reagent – called dimethylformamide dimethyl acetal (DMF-DMA) – to sublimate organic compounds keeping them safe from thermal degradation and conserving the chirality of the molecules extracted from Titan or Mars’ matrices. Indeed, the detection of building blocks of life or enantiomeric excess of some organics (e.g. amino acids) after DMF-DMA pre-treatment and GC–MS analyses would be both bioindicators. The main results highlighted by our work on DMF-DMA and Tenax®TA interaction and efficiency to detect organic compounds at ppb levels in a fast and single preparation are first that Tenax®TA did not show the onset of degradation until after 150 experiments – a 120 h at 300 °C experiment – which greatly exceeds the experimental lifetimes for the DraMS and GC-space in situ investigations. Tenax®TA polymer and DMF-DMA produce many by-products (about 70 and 46, respectively, depending on the activation temperature). Further, the interaction between the two leads to the production of 22 additional by-products from DMF-DMA degradation, but these listed by-products do not prevent the detection of trace-level organic molecules after their efficient derivatization and volatilization by DMF-DMA in the oven ahead the GC–MS trap and column.

DraMS-Dragonfly mission↗