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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 469 records · Page 26
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2016

Cold dark matter substructures in early-type galaxy halos

We present initial results from the “Ponos” zoom-in numerical simulations of dark matter substructures in massive ellipticals. Two very highly resolved dark matter halos with M {sub vir} = 1.2 × 10{sup 13} M{sub ⊙} and M {sub vir} = 6.5 × 10{sup 12} M{sub ⊙} and different (“violent” versus “quiescent”) assembly histories have been simulated down to z = 0 in a ΛCDM cosmology with a total of 921,651,914 and 408,377,544 particles, respectively. Within the virial radius, the total mass fraction in self-bound M {sub sub} > 10{sup 6} M{sub ⊙} subhalos at the present epoch is 15% for the violent host and 16.5% for the quiescent one. At z = 0.7, these fractions increase to 19% and 33%, respectively, as more recently accreted satellites are less prone to tidal destruction. In projection, the average fraction of surface mass density in substructure at a distance of R/R {sub vir} = 0.02 (∼5–10 kpc) from the two halo centers ranges from 0.6% to ≳2%, significantly higher than that measured in simulations of Milky Way-sized halos. The contribution of subhalos with M {sub sub} < 10{sup 9} M{sub ⊙} to the projected mass fraction is between one-fifth and one-third of the total, with the smallest share found in the quiescent host. We assess the impact of baryonic effects via twin, lower-resolution hydrodynamical simulations that include metallicity-dependent gas cooling, star formation, and a delayed-radiative-cooling scheme for supernova feedback. Baryonic contraction produces a super-isothermal total density profile and increases the number of massive subhalos in the inner regions of the main host. The host density profiles and projected subhalo mass fractions appear to be broadly consistent with observations of gravitational lenses.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

Iterative metal artifact reduction for x-ray computed tomography using unmatched projector/backprojector pairs

Purpose: Metal artifact reduction (MAR) is a major problem and a challenging issue in x-ray computed tomography (CT) examinations. Iterative reconstruction from sinograms unaffected by metals shows promising potential in detail recovery. This reconstruction has been the subject of much research in recent years. However, conventional iterative reconstruction methods easily introduce new artifacts around metal implants because of incomplete data reconstruction and inconsistencies in practical data acquisition. Hence, this work aims at developing a method to suppress newly introduced artifacts and improve the image quality around metal implants for the iterative MAR scheme. Methods: The proposed method consists of two steps based on the general iterative MAR framework. An uncorrected image is initially reconstructed, and the corresponding metal trace is obtained. The iterative reconstruction method is then used to reconstruct images from the unaffected sinogram. In the reconstruction step of this work, an iterative strategy utilizing unmatched projector/backprojector pairs is used. A ramp filter is introduced into the back-projection procedure to restrain the inconsistency components in low frequencies and generate more reliable images of the regions around metals. Furthermore, a constrained total variation (TV) minimization model is also incorporated to enhance efficiency. The proposed strategy is implemented based on an iterative FBP and an alternating direction minimization (ADM) scheme, respectively. The developed algorithms are referred to as “iFBP-TV” and “TV-FADM,” respectively. Two projection-completion-based MAR methods and three iterative MAR methods are performed simultaneously for comparison. Results: The proposed method performs reasonably on both simulation and real CT-scanned datasets. This approach could reduce streak metal artifacts effectively and avoid the mentioned effects in the vicinity of the metals. The improvements are evaluated by inspecting regions of interest and by comparing the root-mean-square errors, normalized mean absolute distance, and universal quality index metrics of the images. Both iFBP-TV and TV-FADM methods outperform other counterparts in all cases. Unlike the conventional iterative methods, the proposed strategy utilizing unmatched projector/backprojector pairs shows excellent performance in detail preservation and prevention of the introduction of new artifacts. Conclusions: Qualitative and quantitative evaluations of experimental results indicate that the developed method outperforms classical MAR algorithms in suppressing streak artifacts and preserving the edge structural information of the object. In particular, structures lying close to metals can be gradually recovered because of the reduction of artifacts caused by inconsistency effects.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Novel and effective surface passivation for high efficiency n- and p-type Silicon solar cell

The project objective was to develop a novel Si surface passivation method using chalcogens, sulfur (S) and/or selenium (Se), as passivating elements, to withstand industry-standard high temperature contacting and metallization schemes for p-type Si based passivated emitter and rear contact (p-PERC) solar cells. The back surface passivation of PERC cells has been improved drastically with the invention and successful application of an Al 2 O 3 passivation layer. However, the front n + diffused junction surface is still poorly passivated by the standard amorphous silicon nitride (SiNx) anti-reflection coating (ARC) layer. This project sought to address the passivation challenges of both front n+ emitter and undiffused p-Si back surface. Improved p-PERC solar cell performance with open circuit voltage (V OC ) > 680 mV and efficiency of 22% were targeted to validate superior defect passivation properties as compared to standard SiO 2 / Al 2 O 3 passivation. During this project, we systematically investigated process-structure-properties-performance relationships of this novel advanced defect passivation approach. The S/Se passivation was carried out by reacting industrial Czochralski (Cz) Si wafers in H 2 S and H 2 Se gases in a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) reactor at temperatures up to 700°C. After an exhaustive optimization of the process parameters (temperature, time, and gas concentration), we established an optimized process and demonstrated extremely low surface recombination velocities (SRVs) of 1.5 cm/s and 8 cm/s on n-type and p-type Si, respectively, by S-passivation. In-depth surface and interface characterization were performed using soft x-ray and photoelectron spectroscopies (XPS, UPS, XES), combined with capacitance-voltage-frequency (C-V-f) measurements, to decipher the surface chemical/electronic structure and interface defect state densities. These measurements provided critical understanding of the defect passivation mechanism and elucidated the presence of surface S-Si bonds, a reduction of surface dipoles, and low interface state densities (D it ) < 10 11 cm -2 ev -1 . We also found that the Se-passivation is inferior to the S-passivation (by at least one order of magnitude in SRV). Application of the optimized S-passivation to the n+ diffused emitter surface led to a low surface recombination current density, J0 ≈ 40 fA/cm 2 (~ 1/4 of the industry-standard SiNx-passivation), and high implied V OC (686 mV) in p-PERC solar cell structures. The S-passivation process also was found to improve the bulk quality of the p-type Si, better than the SiO 2 or Al 2 O 3 passivation processes. After successful demonstration of efficient passivation of Si surface defects by S, we extensively studied the air, thermal, and illumination stability of the passivation structure. S-passivation itself degrades in air due to competing reactions with moisture and oxygen to form oxides, which can be eliminated by a SiNx capping layer (also acting as a anti-reflective coating). After SiNx process optimization, we demonstrated illumination and thermally stable S-passivation with SRV < 5 cm/s and J 0 < 80 fA/cm 2 . These enhancements in Si passivation, incorporated into p-PERC cells, achieved an efficiency of 19.93% with V OC = 649 mV, using manufacturing metallization and contacting schemes. The low cell performance (cell V OC is much less than the implied V OC = 686 mV, anticipated from surface passivation) was identified due to degradation of S-passivation during the metal firing step (out-diffusion of S from the Si interface to the SiNx surface). The S-passivation of Si surfaces shows significant promise with excellent passivation quality, essential for high performance (high V OC , high efficiency) solar cells. Integration of this innovative defect passivation into devices, however, demands further development of the capping layer, low temperature (<700°C) metallization process, and/or engineering of advanced device structures. Surface passivation-dominated advanced Si solar cells, such as tunnel oxide passivated contacts and Si heterojunctions, are increasingly of interest due to their high-performance potential and will have a growing photovoltaic market share in the near future.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Enhanced relaxed physical factorization preconditioner for coupled poromechanics

The relaxed physical factorization (RPF) preconditioner is a recent algorithm allowing for the efficient and robust solution to the block linear systems arising from the three-field displacement-velocity-pressure formulation of coupled poromechanics. For its application, however, it is necessary to invert blocks with the algebraic form C^ = (C + βFF T ), where C is a symmetric positive definite matrix, FF T a rank-deficient term, and β a real non-negative coefficient. The inversion of C^, performed in an inexact way, can become unstable for large values of β, as it usually occurs at some stages of a full poromechanical simulation. In this work, we propose a family of algebraic techniques to stabilize the inexact solve with C^. This strategy can prove useful in other problems as well where such an issue might arise, such as augmented Lagrangian preconditioning techniques for Navier-Stokes or incompressible elasticity. First, we introduce an iterative scheme obtained by a natural splitting of matrix C^. Second, we develop a technique based on the use of a proper projection operator annihilating the near-kernel modes of C^. Both approaches give rise to a novel class of preconditioners denoted as Enhanced RPF (ERPF). Furthermore, effectiveness and robustness of the proposed algorithms are demonstrated in both theoretical benchmarks and real-world large-size applications, outperforming the native RPF preconditioner.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2013

A BIM-based system for demolition and renovation waste estimation and planning

Highlights: ► We developed a waste estimation system leveraging the BIM technology. ► The system can calculate waste disposal charging fee and pick-up truck demand. ► We presented an example scenario demonstrating this system. ► Automatic, time-saving and wide applicability are the features of the system. - Abstract: Due to the rising worldwide awareness of green environment, both government and contractors have to consider effective construction and demolition (C and D) waste management practices. The last two decades have witnessed the growing importance of demolition and renovation (D and R) works and the growing amount of D and R waste disposed to landfills every day, especially in developed cities like Hong Kong. Quantitative waste prediction is crucial for waste management. It can enable contractors to pinpoint critical waste generation processes and to plan waste control strategies. In addition, waste estimation could also facilitate some government waste management policies, such as the waste disposal charging scheme in Hong Kong. Currently, tools that can accurately and conveniently estimate the amount of waste from construction, renovation, and demolition projects are lacking. In the light of this research gap, this paper presents a building information modeling (BIM) based system that we have developed for estimation and planning of D and R waste. BIM allows multi-disciplinary information to be superimposed within one digital building model. Our system can extract material and volume information through the BIM model and integrate the information for detailed waste estimation and planning. Waste recycling and reuse are also considered in our system. Extracted material information can be provided to recyclers before demolition or renovation to make recycling stage more cooperative and more efficient. Pick-up truck requirements and waste disposal charging fee for different waste facilities will also be predicted through our system. The results could provide alerts to contractors ahead of time at project planning stage. This paper also presents an example scenario with a 47-floor residential building in Hong Kong to demonstrate our D and R waste estimation and planning system. As the BIM technology has been increasingly adopted in the architectural, engineering and construction industry and digital building information models will likely to be available for most buildings (including historical buildings) in the future, our system can be used in various demolition and renovation projects and be extended to facilitate project control.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2020

Historical total ozone radiative forcing derived from CMIP6 simulations

Radiative forcing (RF) time series for total ozone from 1850 up to the present day are calculated based on historical simulations of ozone from 10 climate models contributing to the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6). In addition, RF is calculated for ozone fields prepared as an input for CMIP6 models without chemistry schemes and from a chemical transport model simulation. A radiative kernel for ozone is constructed and used to derive the RF. The ozone RF in 2010 (2005–2014) relative to 1850 is 0.35 W m -2 [0.08–0.61] (5–95% uncertainty range) based on models with both tropospheric and stratospheric chemistry. One of these models has a negative present-day total ozone RF. Excluding this model, the present-day ozone RF increases to 0.39 W m -2 [0.27–0.51] (5–95% uncertainty range). The rest of the models have RF close to or stronger than the RF time series assessed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in the fifth assessment report with the primary driver likely being the new precursor emissions used in CMIP6. The rapid adjustments beyond stratospheric temperature are estimated to be weak and thus the RF is a good measure of effective radiative forcing.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2012

Reconstruction of polar magnetic field from single axis tomography of Faraday rotation in plasmas

An integral back-transform has been developed to retrieve the polar magnetic component in a cylindrically symmetric plasma from a single projection. The formula is derived from parallel forward Radon transform (Abel transform) of a source-free vector field. Two numerical schemes are proposed to solve the backward transform. These schemes have been tested successfully with predefined plasma parameters. The practical application to the analysis of experimental Faraday rotation measurements is also presented, leading to the reconstruction of the transverse profile of the magnetic field.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2019

Simulation of carbon dioxide absorption by amino acids in two-phase batch and bubble column reactors

The absorption of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is a critical process in many practical applications. The use of amino acid solutions as absorption solvents has the potential to reduce the amount of energy required by the regeneration process. The goal of this research project is to develop dynamic models to simulate CO 2 absorption by using amino acid solutions as absorption solvents. A reaction scheme is introduced to represent the chemical reactions between the amino acid and CO 2 . Two reaction models, for a two-phase batch reactor and a bubble column, based upon transient mass and energy balances for the chemical species found in CO 2 gas-liquid absorption are presented. Computer codes have been written to implement the proposed models. Simulation results are presented and discussed. The proposed models can be used to optimize and control CO 2 absorption in practical applications.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Electronic Coherences in Molecules: The Projected Nuclear Quantum Momentum as a Hidden Agent

Electronic coherences are key to understanding and controlling photoinduced molecular transformations. Here, we identify a crucial quantum-mechanical feature of electron-nuclear correlation, the projected nuclear quantum momenta, essential to capture the correct coherence behavior. For simulations, we show that, unlike traditional trajectory-based schemes, exact-factorization-based methods approximate these correlation terms and correctly capture electronic coherences in a range of situations, including their spatial dependence, an important aspect that influences subsequent electron dynamics and that is becoming accessible in more experiments.

74 ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Porting Classical Approaches for Quantum Simulations to Quantum Computers

Simulating quantum many-body systems is one of the most promising problems in which we might anticipate that quantum computers should show quantum advantage. Unfortunately, there is still a gap between this promise and actual practice. New quantum algorithms need to be developed and the current quantum algorithms have various difficulties - e.g efficient state preparation - which must be overcome and improved upon. In many cases, classical approaches need to be ported over to quantum devices. In this project we have developed a suite of new quantum algorithms which makes progress in this regard. We developed a new optimization scheme for variational quantum eigensolvers, UBOS, which mitigates problems with local minimas and barren plateaus while improving convergence to the ground state by an order of magnitude. We developed a new way to utilize qubitization to find ground states of nearly frustration-free Hamiltonians faster than all previous methods. We developed a series of state preparation techniques which helps initialize parameterized quantum circuits into reasonable starting points on which quantum algorithms are then applied. In addition to the development of novel algorithms, it is critical to have classical simulation techniques for approximately simulating quantum circuits which can be used to benchmark and understand quantum algorithms. Toward that end, we developed a novel POVM formalism to simulate quantum circuits as well as exemplify the massive parallelization of tensor network methodologies. Finally, we developed physical understanding of entanglement phase transitions such as many-body localization and random tensor networks.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2024

Experimental Study for Validation of Resilient Response of Controls - Thrust 2 Controls Assessment

The focus of this project is to design, execute, and analyze experiments around resilience response. As part of the Resilience through Data-Driven, Intelligently Designed Control (RD2C) initiative, this project builds upon the previously designed control algorithms and experiments. It designs detailed uses cases to test RD2C-developed mitigation schemes in specific realistic scenarios, analyze and save the measurement data sets. Having a high-confidence and consistent data set is crucial for identifying relevant metrics to describe the system resilience in specific real-life-like scenarios of power grid operation.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
NASA NTRS1984

A methodology for collecting valid software engineering data

An effective data collection method for evaluating software development methodologies and for studying the software development process is described. The method uses goal-directed data collection to evaluate methodologies with respect to the claims made for them. Such claims are used as a basis for defining the goals of the data collection, establishing a list of questions of interest to be answered by data analysis, defining a set of data categorization schemes, and designing a data collection form. Feasibility of the data collection methodology was demonstrated by applying it to five different projects in two different environments (other NRL Reports). The application showed that the methodology was both feasible and useful.

Basili, V. R.↗
NASA NTRS1994

CENDI Indexing Workshop

The CENDI Indexing Workshop held at NASA Headquarters, Two Independence Square, 300 E Street, Washington, DC, on September 21-22, 1994 focused on the following topics: machine aided indexing, indexing quality, an indexing pilot project, the MedIndEx Prototype, Department of Energy/Office of Scientific and Technical Information indexing activities, high-tech coding structures, category indexing schemes, and the Government Information Locator Service. This publication consists mostly of viewgraphs related to the above noted topics. In an appendix is a description of the Government Information Locator Service.

Source record↗
NASA NTRS1994

Basic Space Science; United Nations/European Space Agency Workshops for Developing Countries, 2nd, Bogota, Colombia, November 9-13, 1992

The conference primarily covered astrophysical and astronomical topics on stellar and solar modeling and processes, high magnetic field influence on stellar spectra, cosmological topics utilizing Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) data and radioastronomic mapping as well as cosmic gravitational instability calculations, astrometry of open clusters amd solar gravitational focusing, extremely energetic gamma rays, interacting binaries, and balloon-borne instrumentation. Other papers proposed an active Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) communication scheme to neighboring solar-like systems and more direct involvement of and with the public in astronomy and space exploration projects.

Haubold, Hans J.↗
DOE OSTI2017

Up-skilling and Re-skilling for the Nuclear Industry - 17276

In the UK, nuclear skills and qualifications have been the subject of several studies in higher levels of Government, including one by UK Cabinet Office. The newly formed UK Nuclear Skills Strategy Group (NSSG) has been tasked with addressing the current skills and people gaps for the UK nuclear industry. The NSSG is working with several key organisations in the UK: The National Skills Academy for Nuclear, (NSAN), which covers skills interventions, training and workforce development and experience, and the newly forming National College for Nuclear (NCfN) which will become a nuclear qualifications awarding body, regulating educational qualifications and curriculum in the nuclear sector. The NSSG has published its own UK Nuclear Skills Strategy in December 2016, aligned to the UK Cabinet Office study. It is the intent that, in the near future, nuclear qualifications and experience will be directly transferable across different organisations and nuclear sites in the UK, enabling the maintenance of high standards of behaviours and improved mobility throughout the sector. The UK needs to maintain and grow a diverse workforce and nuclear Suitably Qualified and Experienced Personnel (SQEP) people. The 2015 UK Nuclear Labour Market Intelligence (LMI) report, produced by Cogent for the Nuclear Energy Skills Alliance (NESA), concluded that the total nuclear workforce demand for the UK Nuclear Civil and Defence sector needed to grow by 33,000 people in the next five years, which includes replacement and expansion demand. This involved all disciplines and grades, with for example, higher level skilled workers needing to increase by 2200 FTEs every year. The main discipline pinch points were in, for example, Mechanical; Electrical; Project Management; Safety Case Specialists; Commissioning Engineers. Of the overall workforce, around 10% is over 60 years old and around 38% is over 50 years old. Jacobs in the UK is widely involved in many aspects of skills and competence development, with active involvement in local and national training programmes, and driving new methodologies to accelerate our staff's journey to nuclear competence. As well as looking at the immediate future, there is a risk in the UK that, over the 120-year plus clean-up mission, there won't be enough people with the right skills. Jacobs is developing sustainable solutions to this in our skills and development strategy for the nuclear sector. Jacobs has developed a variety of approaches to help us maintain and grow our diverse workforce and nuclear 'SQEP' people. This includes: - Identifying and developing our employees' technical and personal skills and capabilities, particularly the requirements of our millennials in both technical and social aspects of their working lives. - Identifying and planning for our future skills needs to meet our projected business requirements. - Our programme to transfer skilled employees from other sectors into the nuclear industry. - Our extensive school student placement scheme, aligned to the UK's 'Industrial Cadet' scheme, which has helped to bring school-aged students into Jacobs on workplace experience. - Our collaboration with our customers to develop UK national level Trailblazer Apprentice programmes. - Our involvement at a UK national level in the work of the National Skills Academy for Nuclear (NSAN), the Nuclear Energy Skills Alliance (NESA) High Level Skills Committee and the newly forming UK National College for Nuclear (NCfN). - Our work to ensure diversity is valued in our workplace, for example in our involvement in 'Women in Nuclear'. (authors)

96 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT AND PRESERVATION↗
NASA NTRS2017

The Critical Role of the Routing Scheme in Simulating Peak River Discharge in Global Hydrological Models

Global hydrological models (GHMs) have been applied to assess global flood hazards, but their capacity to capture the timing and amplitude of peak river discharge which is crucial in flood simulations has traditionally not been the focus of examination. Here we evaluate to what degree the choice of river routing scheme affects simulations of peak discharge and may help to provide better agreement with observations. To this end we use runoff and discharge simulations of nine GHMs forced by observational climate data (1971-2010) within the ISIMIP2a (Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project phase 2a) project. The runoff simulations were used as input for the global river routing model CaMa-Flood (Catchment-based Macro-scale Floodplain). The simulated daily discharge was compared to the discharge generated by each GHM using its native river routing scheme. For each GHM both versions of simulated discharge were compared to monthly and daily discharge observations from 1701 GRDC (Global Runoff Data Centre) stations as a benchmark. CaMa-Flood routing shows a general reduction of peak river discharge and a delay of about two to three weeks in its occurrence, likely induced by the buffering capacity of floodplain reservoirs. For a majority of river basins, discharge produced by CaMa-Flood resulted in a better agreement with observations. In particular, maximum daily discharge was adjusted, with a multi-model averaged reduction in bias over about two-thirds of the analysed basin area. The increase in agreement was obtained in both managed and near-natural basins. Overall, this study demonstrates the importance of routing scheme choice in peak discharge simulation, where CaMa-Flood routing accounts for floodplain storage and backwater effects that are not represented in most GHMs. Our study provides important hints that an explicit parameterisation of these processes may be essential in future impact studies.

peak river discharge↗
DOE OSTI2013

Improving Bulk Microphysics Parameterizations in Simulations of Aerosol Effects

To improve the microphysical parameterizations for simulations of the aerosol indirect effect (AIE) in regional and global climate models, a double-moment bulk microphysical scheme presently implemented in the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model is modified and the results are compared against atmospheric observations and simulations produced by a spectral bin microphysical scheme (SBM). Rather than using prescribed aerosols as in the original bulk scheme (Bulk-OR), a prognostic doublemoment aerosol representation is introduced to predict both the aerosol number concentration and mass mixing ratio (Bulk-2M). The impacts of the parameterizations of diffusional growth and autoconversion and the selection of the embryonic raindrop radius on the performance of the bulk microphysical scheme are also evaluated. Sensitivity modeling experiments are performed for two distinct cloud regimes, maritime warm stratocumulus clouds (SC) over southeast Pacific Ocean from the VOCALS project and continental deep convective clouds (DCC) in the southeast of China from the Department of Energy/ARM Mobile Facility (DOE/AMF) - China field campaign. The results from Bulk-2M exhibit a much better agreement in the cloud number concentration and effective droplet radius in both the SC and DCC cases with those from SBM and field measurements than those from Bulk-OR. In the SC case particularly, Bulk-2M reproduces the observed drizzle precipitation, which is largely inhibited in Bulk-OR. Bulk-2M predicts enhanced precipitation and invigorated convection with increased aerosol loading in the DCC case, consistent with the SBM simulation, while Bulk-OR predicts the opposite behaviors. Sensitivity experiments using four different types of autoconversion schemes reveal that the autoconversion parameterization is crucial in determining the raindrop number, mass concentration, and drizzle formation for warm 2 stratocumulus clouds. An embryonic raindrop size of 40 μm is determined as a more realistic setting in the autoconversion parameterization. The saturation adjustment employed in calculating condensation/evaporation in the bulk scheme is identified as the main factor responsible for the large discrepancies in predicting cloud water in the SC case, suggesting that an explicit calculation of diffusion growth with predicted supersaturation is necessary for further improvements of the bulk microphysics scheme. Lastly, a larger rain evaporation rate below cloud is found in the bulk scheme in comparison to the SBM simulation, which could contribute to a lower surface precipitation in the bulk scheme.

aerosol↗