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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 469 records · Page 26
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2026

Tunable magnetic excitations in the honeycomb antiferromagnet (Co,Ni)⁢TiO3

The solid solution of the honeycomb antiferromagnet (AFM) Co0.5⁢Ni0.5⁢TiO3 (CNTO) was synthesized by mixing a 1:1 molar ratio of CoTiO3 (CTO) and NiTiO3 (NTO). Powder neutron scattering was used to determine the structure and magnetic spectrum, where the nuclear and magnetic structures resemble those of the end members. The Néel temperature (T𝑁 = 27 ± 1 K), the ordered magnetic moment (M = 2.29 ± 0.03 𝜇𝐵 per magnetic ion), and lattice parameters are intermediate between those of the two. From inelastic neutron scattering, it is observed that the magnon density of states (MDOS) extends up to 13 meV, and the interaction can be described by an XXZ-type magnetic Hamiltonian. Above 15 meV, spin-orbit excitons (SOEs) are observed similarly to those in CTO, but with modified spin-orbit crystal-field splitting because of the substitution of Ni at Co sites, and the disorder induced by the Ni substitution modifies the spin-orbit crystal field. Thus, the magnetic dynamics of the CNTO cannot be described as a simple average of the two parent compounds.

Rathnayaka, Srimal [University of Virginia, Charlo↗
DOE OSTI2023

A non-neutral generalized Ohm's law model for magnetohydrodynamics in the two-fluid regime

Here, a new non-neutral generalized Ohm's law (GOL) model for atomic plasmas is presented. This model differs from previous models of this type in that quasi-neutrality is not assumed at any point. Collisional effects due to ionization, recombination, and elastic scattering are included, and an expression for the associated plasma conductivity is derived. An initial set of numerical simulations are considered that compare the GOL model to a two-fluid model in the ideal (collisionless) case. The results demonstrate that solutions obtained from the two models are essentially indistinguishable in most cases when the ion–electron mass ratio is within the range of physical values for atomic plasmas. Additionally, some limitations of the model are discussed.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2026

Effects of Polymer Morphology on Solvent and Catalyst Accessibility during Polyethylene and Polystyrene Autoxidation

Efficient catalytic deconstruction of plastics requires facile solvent and catalyst access to polymer substrates to minimize mass transfer effects. Autoxidation using Co(II) acetate, Mn(II) acetate, and a radical carrier in acetic acid is a promising strategy to deconstruct mixed plastic waste, yet the role of polymer morphology in governing solvent and catalyst accessibility remains poorly understood. Here, in situ simultaneous small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS/WAXS), complemented by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) imaging and high-pressure differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), were used to elucidate interactions between acetic acid, a Co/Mn catalyst solution, and semicrystalline polyethylene (PE) and amorphous polystyrene (PS) from room temperature to 160 °C. In PE, acetic acid and catalyst access were confined to amorphous regions and cryomilled particle interfaces at room temperature, while crystalline lamellae remained intact after soaking for up to 34 h. Increasing temperature enabled solvent uptake into PE, followed by solvent-assisted softening above 100 °C, and a modest melting-point depression that removed lamellar transport barriers upon melting. Conversely for PS, acetic acid penetrated the glassy polymer without inducing chain mobility until the glass transition was reached, above which the observed structural changes were consistent with enhanced segmental mobility which enabled bulk penetration. These results suggest that polymer morphology and thermally activated physical transitions arising from diffusion and polymer–solvent interactions can influence whether autoxidation of plastics is transport-limited or kinetically controlled, providing a framework for aligning reaction conditions with reaction outcomes.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Scattering Observables from Few-Body Densities and Compton Scattering on $^6$Li

The dynamics of scattering on light nuclei is numerically expensive using standard methods. Fortunately, recent developments allow one to factor the relevant quantities for a given probe into a convolution of an n -body Transition Density Amplitude (TDA) and the interaction kernel for a given probe. These TDAs depend only on the target, and not the probe; they are calculated once for each set of kinematics and can be used for different interactions.\ % in the same kinematics. The kernels depend only on the probe, and not on the target; they can be reused for different targets and different kinematics. The calculation of TDAs becomes numerically difficult for more than four nucleons, but we discuss a new solution through the use of a Similarity Renormalization Group transformation, and a subsequent back-transformation. This technique allows for extending the TDA method to heavier nuclei such as 6 Li. We present preliminary results for Compton scattering on 6 Li and compare with available data, anticipating an upcoming, more thorough study. We also discuss ongoing extensions to pion-photoproduction and other reactions on light nuclei.

Long, Alexander [George Washington University, Was↗
DOE OSTI2025

Dynamic Interfacial Architectures: Cruciferin‐Stabilized Oil/Water Interfaces for Sustainable Emulsions

Stabilizing oil-water interfaces in emulsions by plant-based proteins provides sustainable and tunable ways for designing emulsions with specific properties, for food, healthcare, and pharmaceuticals. Cruciferin, a protein from rapeseed, has great potential as green emulsifier, but details about its structure and mobility at oil-water interfaces are largely unknown. Here, these properties are studied with small angle neutron and x-ray scattering, and neutron spin echo spectroscopy, analyzed by atomistic modelling of scattering curves and coarse-grained modelling, to gain insight into interface coverage, and molecular conformation and mobility at the interface. Cruciferin assumes trimeric conformations at the interface, as in solution, but with its protrusions from the central core of the subunits (“arms”) more compressed. Interfacial mobility is only marginally lower than in solution, indicating the arms still transiently extend and preserve a network, for the first time revealing the mechanism how cruciferin forms highly elastic 2d gel-like oil-water interfaces, as observed in macroscopic rheology. The high interfacial mobility may help in self-repairing non-stabilized interfacial fractions, reducing coalescence. These findings provide a deeper molecular level understanding of proteins at oil-water interfaces, which can stimulate development of new plant-based emulsion products, and contribute to the global protein transition.

cruciferin↗
DOE OSTI2026

Tunable Nanostructures from Inverse Surfactants

Hierarchical materials in the natural world are often made through the self-assembly of amphiphilic molecules. Achieving similar structural complexity in synthetic materials requires understanding how various molecular parameters affect assembly behavior. In recent years, inverse surfactants─molecules with hydrophobic head groups and hydrophilic macromolecular tails─have been shown to self-assemble into supramolecular assemblies in aqueous solutions that show promise for a number of applications, including drug delivery. Here, we build an understanding of the morphological phase diagram of inverse surfactants using insights from scattering experiments, computer simulations, and statistical mechanics. The scattering and simulation results reveal that changing the headgroup size is an important molecular knob in controlling morphological transitions. The molecular size ratio of the hydrophobic group to the hydrophilic group emerges as a crucial dimensionless quantity in our theory and plays a determining role in setting the micelle structure and the transition from mesoscale to macroscale aggregates. Our minimal theory is able to qualitatively explain the key features of the morphological phase diagram, including the prevalence of fiber-like structures in comparison to spherical and planar micelles. Together, these findings provide a more complete picture of the molecular dependencies of assemblies of inverse surfactants, which we hope may aid in the de novo design of supramolecular structures.

Christakopoulos, Panagiotis [ORNL] (ORCID:00090004↗
DOE OSTI2020

Phase evolution during lithium–indium halide superionic conductor dehydration

Select rare-earth alkali halides have demonstrated high lithium ion conductivity. The conductivity appears to be related to the stability of the crystal phase, ordering of the lithium sublattice and the amount of residual H 2 O. Li 3 InCl 6 can be synthesized from concentrated aqueous solution through controlled dehydration. In this work, we track Li 3 InCl 6 dehydration using a multimodal approach that combines thermogravimetric, spectroscopic, X-ray diffraction, and neutron scattering techniques. In situ X-ray diffraction suggests a single phase transition caused by dehydration, in disagreement with spectroscopic and thermodynamic measurements. Neutron scattering, being sensitive toward the H 2 O and Li sublattices, reveals multiple phase transitions. We show that the loss of the final trace H 2 O leads to strain and grain boundary formation. Thus, controlled dehydration may be a viable strategy for high-throughput processing for roll-to-roll manufacturing of REAH solid electrolytes.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Quantum Monte Carlo studies of a trimer scaling function with microscopic two- and three-body interactions

Here, we present an energy scaling function to predict, in a specific range, the energy of bosonic trimers with large scattering lengths and finite range interactions, which is validated by quantum Monte Carlo calculations using microscopic Hamiltonians with two- and three-body potentials. The proposed scaling function depends on the scattering length, effective range, and a reference energy, which we chose as the trimer energy at unitarity. We obtained the scaling function as a limit cycle from the solution of the renormalized zero-range model with effective range corrections. We proposed a simple parametrization of the energy scaling function. Besides the intrinsic interest in theoretical and experimental investigations, this scaling function allows one to probe Efimov physics with only the trimer ground states, which may open opportunities to identify Efimov trimers whenever access to excited states is limited.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Dyson maps and unitary evolution for Maxwell equations in tensor dielectric media

The propagation and scattering of electromagnetic waves in dielectric media is of theoretical and experimental interest in a wide variety of fields. An understanding of observational results generally requires a numerical solution of Maxwell equations—usually implemented on conventional computers using sophisticated numerical algorithms. In recent years, advances in quantum information science and in the development of quantum computers have piqued curiosity about taking advantage of these resources for an alternate numerical approach to Maxwell equations. This requires a reformulation of the classical Maxwell equations into a form suitable for quantum computers which, unlike conventional computers, are limited to unitary operations. In this paper, a unitary framework is developed for the propagation of electromagnetic waves in a spatially inhomogeneous, passive, nondispersive, and anisotropic dielectric medium. For such a medium, generally, the evolution operator in the combined Faraday-Ampere equations is not unitary. There are two steps needed to convert this equation into a unitary evolution equation. In the first step, a weighted Hilbert space is formulated in which the generator of dynamics is a pseudo-Hermitian operator. In the second step, a Dyson map is constructed which maps the weighted-physical-Hilbert space to the original Hilbert space. Furthermore, the resulting evolution equation for the electromagnetic wave fields is unitary. Utilizing the framework developed in these steps, a unitary evolution equation is derived for electromagnetic wave propagation in a uniaxial dielectric medium. The resulting form is suitable for quantum computing.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

Code Coverage Status of the ARC Code PERSENT

The Argonne Reactor Code (ARC) software system supports users in their fast reactor design goals by providing neutronic, thermal-hydraulic, and structural analysis capabilities. PERSENT fulfills the role of generating reactivity coefficients for a given time point of a REBUS calculation usable in a point kinetics based safety analysis capability. PERSENT also provides a sensitivity coefficient capability on eigenvalue, reactivity worth, and several other key coefficients that are used in the follow-on safety analysis. Given a co-variance matrix, PERSENT can carry out the uncertainty quantification to indicate the amount of error in the reactivity coefficients derived from the errors in the cross section measurements. With continued improvement of computational resources, many of the geometry modeling capabilities in DIF3D that were primarily used in low order schemes are not really needed anymore. Today, the diffusion and transport capabilities of DIF3D-VARIANT are primarily used in the reactor design process with some scattered usage of DIF3D-FD and DIF3D-Nodal. PERSENT is part of the ARC code system and is built around DIF3D-VARIANT and the flux solution it provides. The purpose of the present work is to identify a set of test problems for PERSENT and assess the code coverage of PERSENT for those test problems. PERSENT treats the DIF3D executable as an external executable and thus the code coverage considerations only need to focus on the PERSENT source code and only a fraction of the connected modules in the existing ARC software library. The goal is to document what parts of the existing PERSENT code are touched by the set of test problems and which are not. Because the verification work done on PERSENT was focused on the most common uses of PERSENT for fast reactor analysis, the code coverage assessment of those capabilities is the highest priority. This will ensure that nothing is being missed by the existing verification test problems that users of PERSENT rely upon. The code coverage analysis of PERSENT was performed with the Code Coverage Tool of the Intel Fortran compiler which requires modifications to the compilation of PERSENT. The detailed coverage tables are given for each submodule of PERSENT. Most of the uncovered parts/files could be easily ignored because they are either for error message and debugging output or not needed by PERSENT today. Only a few uncovered parts of PERSENT deserve extending the verification test suite.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2023

5ω Optical Thomson Scattering Report

The 5ω Optical Thomson Scattering system on the National Ignition Facility (NIF) is a diagnostic designed to measure temporally and spatially resolved plasma conditions in Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF) Hohlraums. The system was proposed in 2014 and a phased approach to implementation was developed. In phase one the collection system was designed, built, and fielded on the NIF to be used for 3ω Thomson scattering measurements and background measurements near 211 nm (5ω. The initial commissioning experiment for the collection system was completed in Oct. 2016. Commissioning of the collection system continued through 2017 and the system is now fielded for a range of user experiments and regularly produces publication quality data. A dedicated 5ω probe laser was designed and built to allow Thomson scattering measurements in the presence of 2 MJ of 3ω drive energy. Due to scattered light (spectral reflections, laser-plasma instabilities, and unconverted drive energy) from the 3w drive lasers typical wavelengths (2ω and 4ω) fielded at other laser facilities like the Nova Laser Facility and the Omega Laser Facility were unable to meeting the signal to background requirements in design studies. A 10 Joule 5ω probe was proposed as a solution that met requirements. This 10 Joule laser was more energetic than previously fielded 5w lasers by 2-3 orders of magnitude. As part of a risk reduction plan, phase two of the project was to develop a 1 Joule, 5ω laser to demonstrate conversion efficiency >20% from 1ω to 5ω and make initial Thomson scattering measurements in the first few nanoseconds of an ICF laser pulse. Initial tests of the 5w conversion were completed at the Laboratory for Laser Energetics (LLE) and produced record 5ω energies. Based on these results from LLE, a 1 Joule, 5w laser system was designed for the NIF in 2018 and commissioning began in 2019. Commissioning of the 5ω laser system continued through 2023 and was eventually paused in Q1 of FY24 due to completing resource constraints. Commissioning of the 5w laser system proved incredibly challenging. Multiple issues were identified during commissioning and resolved, but issues remain. Currently there is not a clear understanding of why 5ω scattered has not been detected on the OTS collection system. Based on offline measurements, calculations, and preshot measurements the system appears to meet all requirements. Potential target physics issues have been investigated and do not appear to be an issue. The current hypothesis is that there is an error in one or more aspects of the offline testing not translating to expected performance when the system is fielded on the NIF. Additional full system testing in-situ utilizing the complete OTS system and NIF target chamber center time is needed to further test potential failure modes.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2026

In situ electric field X-ray total scattering reveals composition-dependent electromechanical strain mechanisms in (1 − x )BiFe 2/8 Ti 3/8 Mg 3/8 O 3 – x PbTiO 3 ceramics

Ferroelectric materials find many applications in energy and aerospace industries. A major challenge for ferroelectric materials is maintaining their properties at elevated temperatures. The (1 − x )BiFe 2/8 Ti 3/8 Mg 3/8 O 3 – x PbTiO 3 (BFTM–xPT) ferroelectric solid solution is a promising candidate for high-temperature applications as it has a high piezoelectric response while also maintaining its ferroelectric phase until a high Curie temperature (T C ) of 650 °C. In this work, we investigate the piezoelectric mechanism in BFTM–xPT, a novel high-T C ferroelectric ceramic. To elucidate the origin of its enhanced piezoelectric performance, relative to other piezoceramics of similar T C , in situ electric field X-ray total scattering experiments were performed. Total scattering combines Bragg scattering (diffraction) and diffuse scattering (pair distribution function), providing insight on various length scales. With information spanning different length scales, extrinsic contributions (i.e., domain wall motion and interphase boundary motion) can be separated from intrinsic contributions (i.e., piezoelectric lattice strain). We show that, for compositions within the morphotropic phase boundary (MPB, x = 0.325), the piezoelectric response is dominated by intrinsic piezoelectric lattice strain, whereas outside the MPB (x = 0.375) the major component of the piezoelectric response is from extrinsic mechanisms including an electric-field-induced phase transition and tetragonal domain wall motion. This article reveals that the origin of piezoelectric response in BFTM–xPT is composition-dependent and shows that high-performance materials may also be located outside the MPB. These findings can help guide material design to optimize properties for specific applications.

Richtik, Brooke N. [University of Calgary, AB (Can↗
DOE OSTI2025

Supramolecular Assembly of Lanthanide-Binding Tag Peptides for Aqueous Separation of Rare Earth Elements

Selective and eco-friendly separation and purification methods for rare earth elements (REEs) are necessary to meet the increasing demand for these valuable metals, which are extensively used in modern electronics and clean energy technologies. Mining feedstocks consist of REE mixtures as stable trivalent cations (Ln 3+ ) that are difficult to separate due to their identical charge and similar size. Lanthanide-binding tags (LBTs), peptide chelates that coordinate Ln 3+ in binding pockets, show promise as selective, high-affinity extractants. We demonstrate that the LBT variant LBTLLA 5– , designed for high selectivity for Tb 3+ , is an effective extractant, forming complexes with REEs in solution that subsequently organize into self-assembling structures rich in Ln 3+ . These structures condense into aggregates that can be separated, enabling an efficient, all-aqueous, eco-friendly separation process. The self-assembled structures are studied using dynamic light scattering, ζ-potential measurements, transmission electron microscopy, anomalous small-angle X-ray scattering, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, and ultraviolet–visible absorption spectroscopy, which confirm LBTLLA 5– peptide-REE ion binding and the further assembly of micron-scale structures rich in REEs. Molecular dynamics simulations reveal the interactions promoting aggregation as well as the integrity of the binding pocket upon self-assembly. We find that LBTLLA 5– :Ln 3+ complexes recruit excess cations within the macrostructures, and we demonstrate that aggregation and selective separation can be controlled by manipulating the metal-peptide ratio in solution. Furthermore, we demonstrate separation from equimolar mixtures of REE pairs Tb 3+ -Lu 3+ and Tb 3+ -La 3+ , supporting the application of LBT peptides as a platform for the selective separation of REEs.

LBT peptides↗
DOE OSTI2025

Local chemical ordering of a neutron-irradiated CrFeMnNi compositionally complex alloy

While ion-irradiation studies are a critical first step in studying compositionally complex alloys (CCAs) for nuclear applications, they do not capture all the microstructural changes occurring under the low irradiation dose rates and different particles’ scattering patterns experienced in a nuclear reactor setting. To explore these phenomena in reactor-relevant conditions for the first time in CCA, the single-phase solid-solution Cr 10 Fe 30 Mn 30 Ni 30 was neutron irradiated up to 6.61 displacements per atom at 395 and 579 °C. Irradiation-enhanced local chemical ordering (LCO) well beyond the range of short range ordering was observed, and is predicted to be the precursor to the precipitation of a coherent Ni-Mn L1 0 phase and a Cr-rich α’ phase, though TEM analysis did not indicate the presence of either in any irradiation condition. The line density of faulted dislocation loops decreased from 6.47 to 1.69 ∙ 10 15 m -2 from 3.43 to 6.61 dpa at 579 °C despite no appreciable faulted loop content in the unirradiated material. LCO is expected to increase the complexity of the energy landscape within this alloy, restricting interstitial point defect mobility and creating local regions of greater stacking fault energy. These contribute to the negative correlation between irradiation dose and faulted dislocation loop density in this study, as well as the lack of void swelling observed.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Early-Stage Aggregation and Crystalline Interactions of Peptoid Nanomembranes

Fully synthetic peptoid membranes are known to mimic important features of biological membranes, with several advantages over other biomimetic membranes. A fundamental understanding of how the individual peptoid amphiphiles assemble in solution to form the bilayer membrane is key to unlocking their versatility for application in a broad range of processes. Here, in this study, in situ X-ray scattering and molecular dynamics simulations are used to understand the early stages of assembly of three different peptoids that exhibit distinctly different crystallization kinetics. The in situ measurements reveal that the peptoids aggregate first into a nascent phase that is less crystalline than the assembled peptoid membrane. Anisotropic aromatic interactions are determined to be the dominant driving force in the early stages of membrane formation. These results provide key insights into how the peptoid assembly may be manipulated during the early stages of assembly and nucleation and growth.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Linking the Spin Transition of Ferric Iron in δ‐(Al,Fe)OOH to Water Storage in the Lower Mantle

As the most massive geochemical reservoir, the lower mantle affects the Earth's budget of volatile elements, including hydrogen or H 2 O. The properties of minerals in the lower mantle are further affected by changes in the electronic configurations of iron cations, that is, by spin transitions. The feedback between spin transitions and potential storage of H 2 O in solid hydrous phases in the lower mantle, however, remains unexplored. By combining high‐pressure nuclear resonant inelastic X‐ray scattering and high‐pressure high‐temperature X‐ray diffraction experiments, we constrained the thermal equation of state of δ‐(Al,Fe)OOH, a member of the phase H solid solution. Based on the derived thermal equation of state of δ‐(Al,Fe)OOH and the underlying thermodynamic model, we calculate the excess Gibbs free energy that arises from the spin transition of ferric iron in this compound and evaluate the effect on phase equilibria. The results of our analysis show that the spin transition of ferric iron in phase H may significantly reduce the thermodynamic activity and hence the concentration of H 2 O in a coexisting hydrous melt. As a consequence, nominally anhydrous minerals of the lower mantle may become dehydrated in the presence of phase H. Our analysis further suggests that, under certain conditions, the spin transition may expand the thermal stability of Fe 3+ ‐bearing phase H and create a geochemical link between the storage of H 2 O in phase H and ferric iron in the lower mantle.

Buchen, Johannes [Univ. of Bayreuth (Germany); Cal↗
DOE OSTI2024

Insights into water extraction and aggregation mechanisms of malonamide-alkane mixtures

Structure at the nanoscale in the organic phase of liquid–liquid extraction systems is often tied to separation performance. However, the weak interactions that drive extractant assembly lead to poorly defined structures that are challenging to identify. Here, in this work, we investigate the mechanism of water extraction for a malonamide extractant commonly applied to f-element separations. We measure extractant concentration fluctuations in the organic phase with small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) before and after contact with water at fine increments of extractant concentration, finding no qualitative changes upon water uptake that might suggest significant nanoscopic reorganization of the solution. The critical composition for maximum fluctuation intensity is consistent with small water–extractant adducts. The extractant concentration dependence of water extraction is consistent with a power law close to unity in the low concentration regime, suggesting the formation of 1 : 1 water–extractant adducts as the primary extraction mechanism at low concentration. At higher extractant concentrations, the power law slope increases slightly, which we find is consistent with activity effects modeled using Flory–Huggins theory without introduction of additional extractant–water species. Molecular dynamics simulations are consistent with these findings. The decrease in interfacial tension with increasing extractant concentration shows a narrow plateau region, but it is not correlated with any change in fluctuation or water extraction trends, further suggesting no supramolecular organization such as reverse micellization. This study suggests that water extraction in this system is particularly simple: it relies on a single mechanism at all extractant concentrations, and only slightly enhances the concentration fluctuations characteristic of the dry binary extractant/diluent mixture.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Validation of 3D cryoEM single-particle reconstruction correctness and handedness with Ewald's sphere correction

The correct description of quantum scattering places the observed scattering contributions on the Ewald's sphere and its Friedel mate copy. In electron microscopy, due to the large radius of the Ewald's sphere, these scattering contributions are typically merged during data analysis. We present an approach that separates and factorizes those contributions into real and imaginary components of the image. When an inverted solution is calculated, the map derived from the real component of the image generates an inverted solution, while the map derived from the imaginary component of the image generates an inverted and sign-flipped solution. Therefore, the sign of correlation between reconstructions derived from the real and imaginary components provides the automatic determination of handedness and additional validation for the quality of 3D reconstructions. The factorization and its implementation are robust enough to be routinely used in single-particle reconstructions, even at resolutions below the limit where the curvature of the Ewald's sphere affects the overall signal-to-noise ratio.

Chemistry↗